ISM 



MODERN 

BUTTER MAKING 





MARTIN H. MEYER 




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University of Wisconsin Dairy School, Madison, Wisconsin 



My acquaintance with over 2000 dairy students in 
the past 15 years has convinced me that the three 
months instruction given each year in the winter dairy 
course of the University of Wisconsin is very helpful 
to the dairy interests of the state. The buttermakers 
and the cheesemakers find that an inquiry into the 
reasons for certain operations in their work helps not 
only to improve the quality of the products they make, 
but that by using their minds as well as their muscles 
the work becomes more interesting. 

Even a short course in dairying gives many students 

a start in the right direction and they learn by it to be 

methodical and systematic in their every day work. 

They also learn that it is necessary to follow the dairy 

press and dairy textbooks to keep up with the progress 

that is made each year. 

E. H. Farrington. 



Dairying is the highest and most speciahzed form of 
agriculture. Its success requires men thoroughly trained 
along broad and many-sided lines, and skillful in the 
practical application of their knowledge. 

The future progress of the dairy industry must, there- 
fore, largely depend on the number of thoroughly 
trained and competent dairymen. Men so trained are 
scarce, their demand far exceeds the supply and their 
opportunities are as numerous as the pebbles on the 
beach. 

The laying of a broad foundation for this life work 
and the acquiring of this knowledge and training are 
accomplished most effectively and most rapidly through 
the medium of our dairy schools. 

The dairy school is the factory, the clearing house 
and the distributory of dairy information, and its gra- 
duates are the pioneers of modern dairying, the ex- 
ponents of real dairy progress and development. 

0. F. HUNZIKER. 







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The young man who chooses the occupation of a 
creamery butter maker must, in order to succeed, 
thoroly appreciate the necessity of acquiring a scien- 
tific knowledge of dairy subjects. The mechanical 
knowledge necessary in order to operate the machinery 
in a creamery is of minor importance, altho, of course, 
very essential. This knowledge can be acquired during 
the young man's apprenticeship, providing he is under 
the tutelage of a good butter maker and one who is not 
only willing but competent to impart information. 

The reason why things should be done in a certain 
way, or in other words, the scientific principles involved 
in dairy manufacture can best be learned at a Dairy 
School where these things are explained in lectures and 
facilities are provided for demonstration work in the 
various steps of dairy manufacture. 

Young men coming to the dairy school usually have 
in mind solely the art of making butter or cheese. 
They soon learn, however, that one who is but familiar 
with this part of the work is only a half-baked dairy- 
man; that the cow, the feed and the care of the herd 
are really the more important factors in the dairy in- 
dustry. It broadens their views and they look forward 
to the time when they can do even better than making 
butter or cheese. 

T. L. Haecker. 



Dairy education is not a goal, it is not the end sought; 
it is a tool to be used in attaining the desired end, and 
just as some can not drive a nail without marring the 
wood or even saw a board straight, so some may never 
profit by education. 

Education is training the eye to see, to read, and the 
mind to think and draw right conclusions from conflict- 
ing data and evidence. The seeker after truth asks two 
men, each of whom have been successful, "What is the 
proper thing to do under such circumstances." Their 
answers are diametrically opposite. It is then only the 
man who can analyze and figure out why seemingly 
opposite methods have brought these men success; who 
can derive from their answers that which will be of 
help in his condition. 

Again, education is not only training, but it is profit- 
ing by the experience of others; it is avoiding the experi- 
mental period, the cutting and trying and proving a 
truth that has already been proved and demonstrated 
many times over. It accepts that which is proved. 

The ancients knew that to keep milk sweet it must 
be cold. Science has shown us why, and the very be- 
ginner in the business of dairying can learn what tem- 
perature is necessary to secure the keeping of milk, he 
can learn whether or not he has that temperature and 
know that given that temperature, the milk received in 
the right condition will keep. 

Education then is but the tool that enables him to 
secure this information and profit by it immediately. 
Our dairy schools seek to teach men what is so, why it 
is so and how it may be profitably applied to every day 



business. They seek to give that amount of practice 
in the actual doing which chnches in the mind of the 
student the why and the wherefore. They can not 
make the dull man more bright or the lazy man more 
aggressive. They may give added incentive by contact 
with others, they can give him additional tools for his 
work. His success in using them depends on his own 
measure of ability and energy. Few men who are 
worth education need go long without it. The young 
man who expects to rise to a position of responsibility 
and individual independence, who hopes to have his 
own business as creameryman, dairyman or in any 
branch of the great dairy industry can afford to add to 
his natural endowment and to the practical experience 
which he has been fortunate enough to acquire, the help 
which comes with systematic training in high school 
and college. Whether it be a few weeks, a few months, 
a year, or a four years course need only be determined 
by personal, individual circumstances. Aim at what 
you want, then get as near it as possible. 

H. E. Van Norman. 



Knowledge plus practical experience plus determi- 
nation to get results is the ammunition required for 
fighting the battle which culminates in success. 

Knowledge broadens our comprehension. It is the 
eye through which we view our day's labor and where- 
with our work is changed from drudgery to pleasure. 

" Ignorance is the curse of God, 
Knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to Heaven ". 

(Shakespeare) 

m. mortensen 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING 



AND 



DAIRY ARITHMETIC 



BY 



MARTIN H. MEYER 



Formerly Assistant in Dairying and Instructor in Practical 

Butter Making at the University of Wisconsin, 

Madison, Wisconsin 



Author of 
A Treatise on Starters 



Madison, Wisconsin, 

Published by the Author, 

19 10 






Copyrighted 1910 

By 

MARTIN H. MEYER 



Ccl.A'<JSu'^04 



PREFACE. 

Dairying in its various phases is undergoing 
marked changes in the methods employed at dairy 
farms, creameries and city milk supply establish- 
ments. These rapid changes require a knowledge 
of the latest and most approved methods for han- 
dling the work incident to each phase of practical 
dairying. The demand for trained and well in- 
formed men has created a desire for knowledge in 
this line of work. In view of this fact, as well as 
requests which came to me for information on sub- 
jects pertaining to creamery butter-making, city 
milk supply, and calculating dividends I felt im- 
pelled to place this little volume, containing the re- 
sults of my twenty-five years experience both on 
dairy farms and in creamery butter-making, as well 
as my experience as instructor in dairying at the 
University of Wisconsin, before the practical dairy- 
man. 

If I should succeed in helping only a small num- 
ber of the dairymen of the country to better their 
financial condition; if I should succeed in arousing 
to some extent the interest of the dairying frater- 
nity with regard to the need of cleaner and purer 
milk, as well as to the need of pasteurizing all milk 
and cream (even for cheesemaking), I should feel 
amply repaid for the time and labor spent in the 
production of this volume. 



Eeferences have been made to other writers on 
similar subjects whenever it was thought neces- 
sary, in order to impress the reader with the neces- 
sity of studying the works of other students of 
dairying, and comparing the different results ob- 
tained in this line of work. 

Thanks are due tO' Prof. E. H. Farrington, Madi- 
son, Wisconsin, Prof. M. Mortensen, Ames, Iowa, 
Prof. 0. F. Hunziker, Purdue, Indiana, Prof. T. L. 
Haecker, St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, and Prof. 
H. E. Van Norman, State College, Pennsylvania, for 
furnishing half-tones of their dairy schools as well 
as valuable contributions. 

Great care has been taken in writing and read- 
ing the manuscript of this volume, but it is pos- 
sible that errors have crept in, in spite of all pre- 
cautions for guarding against them. 

Madison, Wisconsin. 
September 1, 1910. 

MARTIN H. MEYER. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The aim of all of us, regardless of the kind of 
work in which we are engaged, is to better our 
financial and social position. In order to realize, at 
least in part, our ambition, we must spend a large 
part lof the time not actively engaged in earning a 
living, in study and research. By this I mean that 
we should spend a few hours every day in reading 
what other men, who are actively engaged in our 
own line of work, are doing. We should spend 
some time in studying out what course is best for 
carrying out our plans, and for meeting competi- 
tion. Such a line of thought is necessary for reap- 
ing the greatest pleasure and profit from our work. 

Eealizing the importance of modern methods in 
dairying, and the necessity for their adoption by the 
dairyman and creameryman, this little book has 
been written. 

The testing of milk and cream is treated in two 
chapters. Chapter III in Book I treats this subject 
in a general way, and Chapter V in Book II dis- 
cusses it more fully. These two^ chapters should 
be read jointly, in order that the reader may not 
form wrong conclusions as to my point of view. 

Recognizing a public sentiment which is in con- 
formity with my views on the pasteurization of milk 
and cream, one chapter divided into two parts has 
been devoted to this subject. The reader is re- 



2 MODEKN BUTTER MAKING. 

quested to read the works of other men who have 
made pasteurization a study, in connection with this 
chapter. 

Eealizing the need of greater accuracy and train- 
ing in calculating dividends at creameries as well 
as performing other mathematical calculations, a 
few chapters are devoted exclusively to this part 
of creamery work. The intention is to present to 
the reader the main principles of decimals and per- 
centage, for, upon these are based all calculations 
pertaining to dairying. 

Decimal places are carried out only as far as was 
deemed advisable for practical work. 

A general table of contents is placed in the front 
of the book and a paragraph index giving para- 
graph numbers is placed before each chapter. Num- 
bers found in the paragraphs are reference num- 
bers. 

This volume is to be considered only from a prac- 
tical point of view, and in the subjects treated in 
it, an effort has been made to handle them in a 
manner suitable for the every day practical cream- 
eryman. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



BOOK L 

Chapter Page 

I. Receiving Milk and Cream 7 

11. Strength of Sulphuric Acid 17 

III. Testing Milk and Cream 21 

IV. Acidity Tests 36 

"V. Commercial Starters in Butter Making 36 

VI. Cream Eipening 70 

VII. The Churning of Cream 85 

VIII. The Handling of Butter After Churning 101 

IX. Controlling Moisture in Butter 114 

X. Butter Faults 134 

XI. The Art of j3utter Judging 160 

XII. (a) Pasteurization 170 

(b) Pasteurisation of Milk and Cream for City- 
Supply 182 

XIII. Determination of Moisture in Butter 199 

BOOK 11. 

DAIRY ARITHMETIC. 

I. Decimals 215 

II. The Overrun 232 

III. Standardization of Milk and Cream and Butter 

Tat Values 252 

IV. Creamery Problems 269 

V, Discussion of Cream Tests 293 

Index to Dairy Aritmetie 304 



BOOK I. 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



CHAPTER I. 

RECEIVING MILK OR CREAM. 



We must not forget that there is a 
direct relation between the quaUty of 
milk and cream when received, and 
the quality of butter made from it. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER I. 



Par. No. Page. 

1. A change in the creamery system 9 

2. Proper intake necessary 10 

3. Correct weighing essential 10 

4. Proper and improper sampling of milk 10-11 

5. How to sample frozen milk 11 

6. Care of composite milk samples 12 

7. Preparing composite samples for testing 12 

8. Eeceiving hand separator cream 13 

9. Concerning composite cream samples 13-14 

10. Concerning sampling cases and tubes 14 

11. Cream transportation 15 

12. Testing each patron's cream while he waits 15 

13. Care of composite cream samples 16 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

Book I. 



CHAPTER I. 
Eeceiving Milk or Cream. 

The department of a creamery for receiving milk 
or cream is usually termed the "intake." This is 
one of the most important departments of a cream- 
ery and upon the successful handling of this depart- 
ment largely depends the success of the creamery, 

1. With the advent of the hand separator the in- 
take has in a measure less influence on the patron, 
but where each patron delivers his own milk or 
cream, the intake exerts a powerful influence for good 
upon the patrons. The personal influence which the 
person in charge of this department exerts upon the 
patrons in furthering the production of clean milk 
or cream is by no means small. Also the tactful in- 
take man can often adjust matters satisfactorily with 
a dissatisfied patron, he can often settle financial dif- 
ficulties by a little careful explanation and in many 
ways keep things running smoothly. Wherever the 
patron delivers his milk or cream himself, the right 
person in charge of the intake can become a real edu- 
cator among his patrons. A little advice now and 
then relative to the production of clean milk is usu- 
ally well taken and gives good results. When milk 
or cream is hauled or shipped, this personal element 

9 



10 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

influencing the patron is practically lost. At the 
present time a large part of the milk and cream re- 
ceived at creameries is not delivered by the patron 
himself and for this reason traveling instructors are 
not only desirable but absolutely necessary in order 
to maintain and improve the quality of raw material. 

2. Receiving milk. Creamerymen as a rule ar- 
range the intake to suit their individual conditions 
and surroundings. One thing which is very neces- 
sary is to provide a good protection at the milk re- 
ceiving place for the comfort of the milk hauler and 
the weigher or intake man. Patrons of any cream- 
ery will appreciate the kindness and thoughtfulness 
of the creameryman in providing such a shelter, 
especially during cold or rainy weather. 

3. The weighing must be accurately done. The 
scales should be inspected frequently as to their 
accuracy. Either under or over weight is very 
detrimental to the success of any creamery. The 
person who weighs the milk must learn what kind 
of milk to reject and also how to reject it. 

When rejecting poor milk or cream the intake 
man should be polite but firm in manner. A little 
judicious reasoning on his part may often avert 
trouble and cause the patron to leave the creamery 
satisfied. 

4. Sampling milk. Correct sampling is one of the 
most important factors affecting the results in cream- 
ery work. Sampling should be done immediately 
after the milk is all poured into the weighing can, 
but if for any reason this is impossible the milk 
should be thoroughly mixed before taking the sam- 



EECEIVING MILK OE CREAM. 11 

pie. It is comparatively easy to correctly sample 
clean, fresh, whole milk, but if milk is old, or has 
been partly churned during transportation or is 
partly frozen or sour or both, correct sampling is 
difficult. 

When milk is received in a condition which makes 
testing difficult it is well to have a talk with the 
patron furnishing the milk in order to explain to him 
how the true test may be affected by not having the 
milk or cream in proper condition. Explain to him 
that it is better to take no sample of milk not in 
good condition and allow him the average test for 
the day or days when no sample is taken. 

5. Partly churned and frozen milk. Sampling 
partly churned, sour or frozen milk is always attend- 
ed with more or less failure in procuring a correct 
average sample. Churned milk unless heated enough 
to melt the churned butter fat cannot be sampled 
correctly. The reason is that the particles of butter 
fat float on the top of the milk and the granules are 
of such various sizes that even if the milk is well 
stirred before taking the sample, the granules will 
vary so much in size that it is impossible to obtain a 
correct sample without heating the milk sufficiently 
to melt the granules. In the case of frozen or partly 
frozen milk the water freezes first and forms crys- 
tals from which the fat globules may have been ex- 
cluded. Therefore the frozen part contains much 
less fat than the liquid or semi-liquid portions of the 
milk. When sampling is done at the weigh-can, 
while the milk is partially frozen, the sample invari- 
ably tests too high. To do justice to both the cream- 



12 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

ery man and the patron, the milk must either be 
thawed or no sample taken from it on that day. 
When badly frozen milk is warmed to 115° F. to 
allow the mixing of it for sampling, it should be 
mixed thoroughly by pouring several times, and 
the sample should be taken quickly. The necessity 
of sampling milk quickly after it is warmed suffi- 
ciently to melt the churned butter fat, is due to the 
fact that in partly churned or frozen milk the fat 
when warmed enough to melt it, will easily float on 
top of the milk by reason of its lower specific 
gravity. 

6. Care of composite milk samples. Be sure to 
put a preservative tablet in each sample jar before 
putting the sample of milk into it. Composite sam- 
ples should be mixed daily and also whenever a new 
sample of milk is added, by giving the sample jar 
a few rotary motions. Thorough mixing is a great 
aid toward getting good results at the time of test- 
ing the milk. The sample jars should have tight 
fitting covers and should be kept in a closed case 
both in winter and summer. When sample jars are 
left open, especially in the hot summer time, cream 
adhering to the sides of the jars will form a tough 
layer — a mixture composed mostly of cream and 
casein — which will cause trouble in sampling for 
testing. (Parrington and Woll.^) 

7. Preparing composite samples for testing. Place 
the sample jars in water of a temperature of 115- 
125° F. and allow them to remain in the water until 
the milk is thoroughly warmed and the cream lique- 

^Farrington and Woll. Testing Milk and and Its Products. Chap. IT, 
p. 23, 1904. 



RECEIVING MILK OE CREAM. 13 

fied. Then mix thoroughly by pouring back and 
forth a few times and quickly take a sample with 
a perfectly graduated pipette. The composite sam- 
ple should be warmed every time before sampling 
for testing — in summer as well as in winter. The 
impression that summer temperature is warm 
enough for accurate sampling of composite samples 
for testing is erroneous. In my experience I have 
found that much of the trouble with variations in 
the test is due to neglecting to warm the composite 
sample before taking a sample for testing. The ex- 
tra time required in properly caring for milk sam- 
ples is time well spent and the creamery man is re- 
paid in the satisfaction given both to himself and 
his patrons by the knowledge that the test is abso- 
lutely correct. 

8. Receiving hand separator cream. The manner 
of receiving cream at factories varies greatly. This 
is due to the various methods employed in caring 
for the cream at the factory, and the manner of 
transporting the cream, whether by railroad or team 
transportation, or by the delivery by the individual 
patrons themselves. Since circumstances and con- 
ditions vary in each factory it is necessary for each 
creameryman to study conditions existing in his 
factory and make arrangements to suit his individual 
case. But whatever arrangements are made for the 
receiving of cream, they should be durable, sanitary 
and convenient. 

METHODS OP COMPOSITE SAMPLING. 

9. Composite cream samples. The composite 
sample method of testing cream for fat content is 



14 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

quite widely used at present and when properly 
handled gives very good results. The fact that some 
creamerymen have not the proper facilities for car- 
ing for the composite samples, as well as the fact 
that some competitors test every day, has led to a 
system in some creameries of testing the cream 
every day as soon as it is received and sampled or 
as soon as the sample case containing the samples 
from a route has arrived at the factory. Testing 
cream for fat content soon after it is received at 
the factory and while it is still in a fresh condi- 
tion, is becoming quite common and is received 
with much favor. 

10. Sampling Case and Tubes. A suitable and 
convenient sample case holding a sufficient number 
of test tubes of any suitable size, as advertised in 
creamery supply catalogues, may be obtained. The 
hauler takes this case on the road and at the time 
of weighing each patron's cream he takes a well 
mixed sample with a small dipper or graduated 
tube, which delivers an aloquot part of the cream, 
and puts it into the sample tube, which is provided 
with a tight fitting cork. The cover of the case is 
so closely fitted that when the cover is closed the 
corks in the tubes cannot come out. This insures 
a safe delivery of the samples. On arriving at the 
factory these samples are placed in a tank of warm 
water, if necessary, and when warmed and well 
shaken they are poured into jars containing a pre- 
servative. In this manner samples are added as 
often as cream is gathered during a period of a 
week, two weeks or a month, and is then tested. 



EECEIVING MILK OE CEEAM. 15 

Some creamerymen test each sample soon after the 
samples are brought to the factory and this system 
is to be recommended. While the method of mak- 
ing a composite test every week or two may give 
good results in the hands of an expert, still there 
are greater chances for errors than when cream is 
tested at each delivery. 

11. Where cream is shipped by rail and the test- 
ing is done at the receiving station the cream buyer 
frequently takes a duplicate sample, places it in 
a screw-top jar and drops the jar into the can of 
cream. The cream is then shipped to the central 
station and upon its arrival there the cream is care- 
fully poured into a strainer. The sample jars are 
then taken from the strainer, sent to the testing de- 
partment where they are tested and the results ob- 
tained compared with the tests made at the receiv- 
ing station. While this method may be a very satis- 
factory one from the standpoint of accuracy, yet 
considering it from the sanitary point of view, it 
is not to be recommended. The samples of cream 
should be sent by express and not put in the cream 
can. 

12. Testing each patron's cream while he waits. 
In many cases where cream is delivered at the fac- 
tory by the patrons themselves, it is tested while 
they wait. The cream can is washed and a check 
for the value of the cream is given to the patron. 
This method is employed in many factories in Min- 
nesota and Iowa. In Wisconsin and Michigan the 
system is not so prevalent. Where the system of 
testing at each delivery of cream can be employed 



16 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

without too much inconvenience it should be used. 
It has been found that the most uniform results in 
testing cream can be obtained by testing it when 
fresh, without the addition of preservatives. The 
longer a composite sample is held before testing, the 
greater is the care required in its preparation for 
testing. 

13. Care of composite cream samples. A good 
preservative should always be used. The sample 
jars should be well shaken daily by a rotary motion, 
and also whenever a new sample of cream is added. 
The cover must be well fitted to the jar and the 
jars should be kept in a cool, well enclosed compart- 
ment. The evaporation of moisture from badly kept 
samples is quite great and a little evaporation of 
moisture raises the test considerably above the 
actual fat .content in the cream. The loss sustained 
in this way by the creameryman handling a large 
amount of cream is enormous. No matter how well 
managed a creamery may be in other respects, the 
creameryman cannot stand the loss incurred in this 
manner — at least not for any considerable length of 
time. Unless the greatest care is exercised in the 
handling of composite cream samples, composite 
sampling should not be employed. Cream samples 
should not be held longer than two weeks ; holding 
them for only one week is better, but testing every 
day is the best method. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE STRENGTH OF SULPHURIC 
ACID. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER II. 



Par. No. Page. 

14. Sulphuric acid, specific gravity 19 

15. Eegulating the strength of sulphuric acid 19-20 

16. Filling vessels from the carboy 20 



CHAPTER II. 
The Strength of Sulphuric Acid. 

14. Sulphuric acid should have a specific gravity 
of 1.82—1.83 (Farrington and WolP) or not below 
1.815 nor above 1.839. The strength of sulphuric 
acid is shown to some extent by the color of the 
fat. When the temperature of both the milk and 
the acid is 70° F,, and the fat shows dark flakes or 
is black, the sulphuric acid is too strong. When the 
fat is very light colored the acid is too weak. When 
it is found that the fat is blackened by too strong 
acid, add less acid. If the fat is too light, add a 
trifle more acid. By experience the operator will 
soon learn just how much acid to add in order to 
get a clear, well defined reading. Very few carboys 
of acid are exactly alike in strength; therefore a 
few tests made from any one carboy will indicate 
the strength of the acid and the amount necessary 
can easily be measured out for each milk or cream 
sample. 

15. Regulating the strength of sulphuric acid. If 
the acid is too strong it can be made of standard 
strength by leaving the carboy open, as the acid 
weakens by being exposed to the air. Since it takes 
quite a time for the average creamery to use a whole 
carboy of sulphuric acid it is not deemed advisable 
to standardize the whole carboy at one time, but 
rather standardize one gallon at a time. When a 
carboy of sulphuric acid is all standardized there is 

' Farrington and WoU. Testing- Milk and Its Products, 1904. 

19 



20 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

danger of it becoming too weak before all of it is 
used. Some buttermakers prefer placing a small 
quantity of water in an earthen jar and then pour- 
ing acid into it until it is of the proper strength. 
Great care must be used when water is used as a 
diluent, because when sulphuric acid is mixed with 
water great heat is produced. When the acid is 
poured into water it boils and foams and some of 
it may spatter over the sides of the jar and burn 
the hands or clothing. Sulphuric acid should al- 
ways be handled very carefully since a drop of it 
on the clothing will burn a hole in it and on the 
hands may burn the skin and make it sore. It is 
well to have a weak solution of ammonia at hand, 
which should be applied at once in case of an acci- 
dent with sulphuric acid. Water may also be used 
in place of the ammonia, if the latter is not at hand, 
as it weakens the acid and thereby renders it less 
destructive. 

16. Filling vessels from the carboy. It is quite a 
task to fill bottles or any vessel from carboys with- 
out spilling acid or meeting with an accident. Some 
creamerymen draw acid from carboys with a pi- 
pette, not realizing that a slight accident might cost 
them their lives, by getting sulphuric acid into the 
throat. A convenient device is Burke's Pneumatic 
Acid Syphon, which can be obtained from creamery 
supply houses. 



CHAPTER III. 

TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 



A Dairy School is the proper place to 
learn how to operate successfully the 
Babcock Test. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER IH. 



Par. No. Page. 

17. Temperature of sulphuric acid and milk 23 

18. Measuring milk into the test bottle 23 

19. The mixing of milk and acid 23 

20. Apparatus used for measuring acid into test bot- 

tles 24 

21. Whirling the bottles and adding hot water 24-26 

22. Accuracy in testing cream a necessity 26 

23 How often should cream be tested? 26 

24. Composite cream samples 26-27 

25. Handling fresh cream samples 27 

26. Weighing cream for testing 27 

27. Kind of cream scale to use 28 

28. Temperature of cream and acid _ 28 

29. (a) Causes of defects in the test 28 

(b) Causes of a cloudy and wavy fat column _ 29 

(c) Causes of black flakes and black fat coliman 29 

30. Mixing cream and acid . 29-30 

31. Whirling the bottles and adding hot water 30 

32. How to get a clear reading 30-31 

33. Temperature during first whirling 31 

34. How to read milk tests 31-32 

35. How some creamerymen read milk tests 32 

36. Preparing samples for testing cream 33 

37. Care of cream samples „ 33 

38. Preparing samples for measuring intt) a test bottle 33 

39. Weighing cream into the test bottle 33-34 

40. Making a cream test 34 

41. Suggestions on reading cream tests 34-35 

42. Colored alcohol in reading cream tests 35 



CHAPTER III. 
Testing Milk and Cream. 

17. Temperature of sulphuric acid and milk. The 

temperature of the acid and milk should be about 
the same — preferably between 60° — 70° F. When 
the acid has a temperature of 65° F. and the tem- 
perature of the milk is below 55° F., add a trifle 
more acid; and when the milk is above 75° F., add 
a trifle less acid. The reason for this is that the 
acid produces a certain amount of heat in the milk, 
which is necessary to produce a complete digestion 
of casein in the milk, in order to liberate the fat. 
Improper temperatures of either the acid or the 
milk, or both, is a frequent cause of a cloudy, flaky 
or charred fat column, and black or white specks in 
both milk or cream tests. 

18. Measuring milk into the test bottle. Use a 
17.6 c.c. pipette; fill up to the mark on the stem 
of the pipette. Place the point of the pipette in 
the mouth of the test bottle, and hold both the pi- 
pette and the test bottle in an inclined position. 
This allows the milk to run down the inside of the 
neck of the bottle, and avoids spilling the same. 
When the milk is all out of the pipette, blow through 
it gently in order that any drops adhering to the in- 
side of it may drop into the bottle. 

19. The mixing of milk and acid. Whatever acid 
measure is used in measuring the acid into the test 
bottle, the bottle must be held in an inclined posi- 
tion, so that the acid may run down on the inside 



24 MODEKN BUTTEE MAKING. 

of the neck of the bottle. After adding the acid, 
the bottle should at once be given a rotary motion 
to the right and to the left, until the milk and acid 
are well mixed. The mixture should then have a 
dark, but not a black color. If the color is too 
light, add a trifle more acid; if too dark, use less 
acid the next time. 

20. Apparatus used for measuring acid into test 
bottles. It is not only necessary to use accurate ap- 
paratus for measuring sulphuric acid into the test 
bottles, but it is most desirable to have a reliable, 
accurate and convenient contrivance, by which sul- 
phuric acid can be safely and quickly added to the 
milk or cream to be tested. Sulphuric acid is a 
dangerous fluid to handle and great care should be 
exercised when using it. For the successful hand- 
ling and measuring of it into test bottles, various 
acid bottles, tubes and dippers are now on the mar- 
ket. Information regarding these may be had by 
addressing any reliable creamery supply house. 

The practice of using a pipette for measuring 
acid into test bottles should be condemned. While 
one may not meet with an accident, there is always 
danger of making a mistake unexpectedly and en- 
dangering one's life by forcing acid over the stem 
of the pipette into the mouth and throat. 

21. Whirling the bottles and adding hot water. 
Be sure to have an equal number of bottles directly 
opposite each other in the tester, in order to have a 
true balance. If this is not done the tester may 
run unevenly and may spoil both the test and tester ; 
or it may break the bottles. 



TESTING MILK AND CEEAM. 25 

After adding the acid to the milk in the test bot- 
tle and mixing the two thoroughly, the test bottles 
should be placed in the tester and whirled for five 
minutes at whatever speed is indicated in the di- 
rections given for the use of the machine. If 
through any unavoidable delay, the test bottles get 
too cool before the testing can be done, the bottles 
should be heated to about 140° F. before placing 
them in the tester. If the samples are tested when 
too cold, the extraction of fat is not perfect, and the 
fat column is neither so clear nor so well defined 
as when the bottles have the proper temperature. 
This heating can be done, either by placing the bot- 
tles in hot water or in the tester, with the steam 
turned on until they are sufficiently heated. Then 
they may be whirled. The first five minutes whirling 
can be done at a high temperature — as high as 200° 
P. without interfering with the accuracy of the test ; 
but the last three or four minutes whirling should 
not be done at a high temperature — preferably 130° 
F. When the testing is finished at too high a tem- 
perature, the fat column contracts and sags a little 
when the bottles are taken from the machine, and 
this settling of the fat may cause a smeary and ill 
defined meniscus, which interferes with the proper 
reading of the fat column. If the reading is done 
when the sample is too hot, the test will be too high. 
At the end of the first five minutes whirling, add 
hot soft water to fill the bottles up to the neck, and 
whirl again for two minutes. After the second 
whirling, add sufficient hot water to fill the bottle 
to about the 8th per cent mark. Soft water should 



26 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

be used, as this can be easily obtained by using con- 
densed steam, or by boiling hard water. 

THE TESTING OF CREAM. 

22. Accuracy a necessity. In no phase of cream- 
ery butter making is accuracy so necessary as in the 
testing of cream. Cl*eameries cannot be success- 
fully operated unless cream samples are properly 
prepared, accurately weighed into the test bottle, 
carefully and properly whirled and the test correct- 
ly read. The success and welfare of the creamery 
and its patrons depends upon the proper perform- 
ance of this work. 

23. Frequency of testing cream. It is desirable 
for several reasons that cream should be tested while 
in good condition instead of allowing the sample to 
get too old. Composite samples should never under 
any circumstances be more than four weeks old when 
tested, and having samples even this old is not to 
be recommended because evaporation of moisture 
is bound to take place even when samples are kept 
under the most favorable conditions. If testing 
cream frequently did not give better results than 
testing at long intervals the former would not meet 
with such great favor with creamerymen as it does. 
Cream should be tested at least three times every 
month. 

PREPARING CREAM SAMPLES FOR TESTING. 

24. Composite cream samples. Set the composite 
cream sample jars into water of a temperature be- 
tween 115 — 120° F. until well warmed. Then shake 



TESTINa MILK AND CEEAM. 27 

by a rotary motion several times or until the cream 
is well suspended and the whole well mixed. Pour 
from jar into a dipper or any convenient vessel and 
back again into the jar, repeating this several times. 
Then quickly take a sample and weigh the desired 
number of grams into a cream test bottle and set to 
cool to reduce temperature for adding acid. 

25. Fresh cream samples. As a rule fresh cream 
samples need not be warmed before taking a sample 
for testing. The warming of fresh cream samples 
is necessary only when the samples have been in 
transit or have stood for such a length of time as 
to allow the butter fat to rise to the top and form 
a heavy layer, or when the sample is too cold. The 
creameryman ought to be able to judge by the con- 
dition of the cream sample what treatment it should 
receive. 

26. Weighing cream for testing. Cream for test- 
ing should be weighed, not measured. The reason 
for this is that butter fat is lighter than milk serum 
and the richer the cream the lighter it is. One quart 
of cream testing 50 per cent butter fat is not so 
heavy as one quart of cream testing 20 per cent but- 
ter fat. When we measure out 18 grams of 50 per 
cent cream we have less cream by weight than when 
we measure out 18 grams of 20 per cent testing 
cream. Even when the same pipette is used in 
measuring cream of the same richness the test will 
vary somewhat between sweet and sour cream, be- 
cause the sour cream contains air bubbles and 
gaseous fermentations, while the body of the sweet 
cream is smooth and close. Weighing cream into 



28 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

cream test bottles is the only reliable and correct 
method. In weighing out cream tap the end of the 
beam of the scale once or twice to determine when 
enough cream is put into a bottle to give a true 
balance. A few drops more or less of rich cream 
will make quite a difference in the result obtained. 

27. Kind of cream scale to use. There are a num- 
ber of good scales on the market especially made 
for weighing cream samples. Any high grade, sen- 
sitive scale may be used. Do not weigh too many 
bottles at a time, as this will render the scale less 
sensitive. iGood scales can be bought from any deal- 
er in creamery supplies. 

28. Temperature of cream and acid. The acid 
should be about the same temperature as the cream. 
Regulate the quantity of acid according to the 
strength and temperature of the acid and the tem- 
perature of the cream. Very rich cream should 
stand about five minutes after the addition of the 
acid before being whirled. This is to give the acid 
time to act upon the ingredients other than fat in 
the cream. Should the fat column not be clear, let 
the bottle get cold, then reheat and whirl again for 
two or three minutes. 

29. Causes of defects in the test. 

(a) Causes of too light color of butter fat. 

1. Milk too cold. 

2. Acid too weak. 

3. Not enough acid. 

4. Acid too cold. 

(b) Causes of a cloudy and wavy fat column. 



TESTING MILK AND CREAM. 29 

1. Not mixing acid and milk at once after acid 
is added to milk. 

2. Not having proper temperature during testing. 

3. Too low speed of tester, combined with weak 
acid. 

4. Insufficient mixing and unclean acid. 

(c) Causes of black flakes and black fat oolunm. 

1. Too strong acid. 

2. Too much acid. 

3. Too high temperature of milk or acid or both. 

4. Not mixing acid and milk soon enough after 
adding acid. 

30. The mixing of cream and acid. The addition 
of the acid to the cream, and the mixing of the 
same, is carried on in the same manner as outlined 
for testing whole milk. When pouring the acid into 
the cream test bottle, the bottle must be held in such 
a way as to wash any cream adhering to the neck 
of the bottle down into the bulb of the bottle. Im- 
mediate mixing is absolutely necessary. If not 
mixed immediately the acid may act upon part of 
the cream and burn part of the butter fat, which 
will appear in the fat column when the testing is 
done in flocules or flakes resembling charred fat. 
Delay in mixing also causes the acid to act unevenly 
upon the casein and thereby may produce white 
flakes, which usually appear at the bottom of the 
fat column. In case delay in mixing the cream with 
the acid does not produce either of those defects, it 
may produce a mottled column of fat. This is evi- 
dent in the lower portion of the fat column by the 
appearance of a brownish or yellowish brown streak. 



30 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

When the acid is added and well mixed with the 
cream, and the mixture turns black very rapidly, it 
is a sign that the acid is too strong. If, however, 
the mixture is of a light yellow shade, or nearly 
white^ the chances are that the acid was either too 
cool or too weak, or the quantity added was insuf- 
ficient. When the samples are all mixed, they must 
be placed in the tester at once, before they cool off 
too much. In case they should cool too much, they 
must be heated before being tested. If this is not 
done, the fat column may show various colors, due 
to the coohiess of the butter fat before starting the 
testing. The separation will then be incomplete, 
which means that the reading of the test will be 
too low, because the butter fat is not all extracted 
or separated. 

31. Whirling" the bottles and adding hot water. 
The whirling of the cream test bottles must be done 
exactly as the whirling of the whole inilk test bot- 
tles. They should be whirled three times. If the 
testing is done by an expert two whirlings may be 
sufficient and may give good results, but with a be- 
ginner two whirlings may not always be sufficient. 
All things considered, three whirlings are better 
than two, but there are creamerymen who whirl the 
bottles only once. 

32. By adding hot water twice the reading will 
be clear, the butter fat column bright, and the menis- 
cus will be well defined. Some creamerymen advo- 
cate the addition of a little hot water before the 
first whirling. 

In case a sample of cream produces a discolored 



TESTING MILK AND CEEAM. 31 

or frotky fat column, this can be remedied by allow- 
ing tbe sample to cool, when through testing, until 
the butter fat hardens. Then reheat, whirl for two 
or three minutes and read at once. This will, as a 
rule, produce a very clear reading. Since hard 
water has a tendency to favor foam on the top of 
the fat column, soft water should be used; if this 
cannot be had use condensed steam, or boil ordinary 
water. 

33. The temperature during the first whirling may 
be as high as 200° F. and yet not necessarily inter- 
fere with the correct result of the test, but if this 
temperature were employed during the two last 
whirlings, and the bottles read immediately after 
the testing were completed, the reading would in- 
variably be too high, and air bubbles might appear 
in the fat column. Therefore, the temperature dur- 
ing the two last whirlings ought not exceed 140° F. 

THE READING OP MILK AND CREAM TESTS. 

34. Reading milk tests. According to Farrington, 
milk tests should be read from the extreme bottom 
line of the fat column to the extreme top of the 
meniscus (see Fig. I, Book II.) The reading from 
A to D represents the true fat content of the milk 
tested. C to d is the space the meniscus takes up, 
which may be termed the per cent of meniscus. This 
space usually represents .2 per cent on the reading 
of the test, but not .2 per cent of the reading. Bab- 
cock found that about .2 per cent fat adheres to the 
inside of the test bottle and does not find its way 



32 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

into the neck of the bottle with the other fat. The 
hollowness in the top of the fat column (the menis- 
cus) represents in the milk bottle about .2 per cent, 
which is equal to the amount of fat which adheres 
to the inside of the bottle. In order to have the 
reading represent the total fat in the milk, the full 
column of fat should be read. In ordinary creamery 
practice, the meniscus of the milk tests is not usual- 
ly included in the reading. At the average cream- 
ery the fat column is usually read from the bottom 
of the fat column (a) to the bottom of the meniscus 
(c). See Fig. I, Chap. V of Dairy Arithmetic. It is 
claimed by most creamerymen that this reading is 
necessary in order to get sufficient overrun. 

35. How some creamerymen read milk tests. It is 
claimed by up-to-date creamerymen, who seem to be 
close observers of their business transactions, that in 
order to recover an amount of butter fat, plus me- 
chanical losses and shrinkage, equal to the butter 
fat bought in the cream, the whole meniscus must 
not be included in the reading of either milk or 
cream tests. Some claim that they have found that 
in order to get the recently requested overrun, based 
upon market returns of butter sold, either on milk 
or cream, the whole meniscus in either case cannot 
be included in the reading of the fat column. Also 
that the reading should not be done at a lower tem- 
perature than 110° F., nor higher than 130° F. At 
a lower or higher temperature than those indicated 
the fat column, it is claimed, is not in good condi- 
tion for proper reading. 



TESTING MILK AND CEEAM. 33 

CONDENSED DIRECTIONS FOR TESTING MILK 
AND CREAM. 

36. Preparing samples for testing cream. Cream 
should always be poured from one vessel into an- 
other before taking a sample. Cream that is frozen 
must be thawed out before it can be properly sam- 
pled. The dipper sampler gives very good results, 
but the sampling tube gives the most accurate re- 
sults. 

37. Keeping the samples. Sample jars must have 
tight fitting covers and should be kept in a closed 
compartment. For composite samples the preserva- 
tive used should be thoroughly mixed with the milk 
or cream. The mixing should always be done with 
a rotary motion. Lack of attention to samples is a 
frequent cause of abnormal variations in the test. 
The samples should not freeze ; they should be looked 
after daily, and the samples taken should not be too 
large. Large samples entail an unnecessary loss. 

38. Preparing samples for measuring into a test 
bottle. Samples should be heated to about 115° F. 
and should be mixed until they are absolutely uni- 
form and the cream is all well suspended. The high- 
er the temperature of the cream sample, the more 
liquid it is and the easier it is to take a uniform 
sample. In case of a lumpy sample, shake vigorous- 
ly before taking the sample for testing. Samples 
which have been partly churned or frozen should be 
very thoroughly mixed, and then sampled as quickly 
as possible. 

39. Weighing cream into the test bottle. Use deli- 
cate balances and keep them in perfect order. Be 



34 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

sure to test the weights for accuracy before using 
them. If possible never use less than nine grams of 
cream for testing ; eighteen grams is even better than 
nine. Never measure the cream, but always weigh 
it, as this is the only correct and reliable method. 
No other method should be tolerated. Be very care- 
ful to weigh out the exact amount, because a few 
drops too much or too little of rich cream means a 
great loss to the creameryman or to the patron. 

40. Making the test. If you use nine grams of 
cream, use about six grams of water and then add 
acid as for an eighteen gram sample. See that the 
fat column is always clear; if it is not, change the 
quantity of acid and determine the exact quantity 
by experience. Use soft, hot water for filling the 
bottles. The first whirling may be done at a com- 
paratively high temperature, but the two last whirl- 
ings should always be done at a temperature of 
about 125° to 140° F. The tester should run smooth- 
ly and should be run neither above nor below speed. 

41. Sugg^estions on reading cream tests. Hold the 
bottle on a level with the eye and then read from 
the bottom of the fat column to nearly the bottom 
of the upper meniscus. The reading should be done 
at a temperature of about 130° F. If possible, when 
nine gram samples are used, use a bottle on which 
the reading is based on eighteen grams. Multiplying 
the reading by two increases an error, if one has 
been made. If bottles get cold before reading can 
be done, place them in a hot water bath of a tem- 
perature of 130° F. for fifteen minutes. The 30 per 
cent, six inch, eighteen gram, and 30 per cent or 
50 per cent nine inch cream test bottles are con- 



TESTING MILK AND CEEAM. 35 

sidered most accurate. The use of the 50 per cent 
six inch cream test bottle should be avoided. Buy 
only first class bottles, as these are most accurate, 
but all bottles should be tested for correctness of 
calibration. Even bottles which are guaranteed cor- 
rectly calibrated cannot always be depended upon as 
accurate. 

Note: For further information regarding the 
reading of cream tests, comparison of cream test 
bottles, and mathematical calculations involved in 
testing cream, consult Book II, Chapter V. 

42. Using colored alcohol in reading cream tests. 
Butter fat has a specific gravity of about .90. Al- 
cohol has a specific gravity of about .816, and amyl 
alcohol has a specific gravity of .8294. It is advis- 
able to be sure to get the properly colored amyl 
alcohol for this use. 

The adding of the colored alcohol must be done 
carefully, so that the fat and alcohol do not mix, 
and so that the alcohol does not run down between 
the fat column and the neck of the bottle. 

Some of the colored liquids on the market seem 
to mix very readily with the butter fat and those 
which do this are Likely to cause considerable 
trouble. An experienced cream tester can read the 
tests more quickly and accurately without the ad- 
dition of the colored alcohol. With some of the 
colored liquids now used, the upper line of the fat 
column had an upward curve, which made the exact 
reading more difficult than when no colored liquid 
was used. Therefore, I wish to warn the inexperi- 
enced operator against the use of a colored liquid 
unless he is sure that it is reliable. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ACIDITY TESTS. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER IV. 



Par. No. Page. 

43. Mann's acidity test 38 

44. How to find per cent acidity 39 

45. Mann's acidity test apparatus 39 

46. The Farrington alkaline tablet solution 40 

47. The standard alkaline acidity test apparatus 40 

48. Farrington rapid method acidity test 41 

49. How to prepare the solution 41 

50. How to operate the test 41 

51. Necessary apparatus 41 

52. Uniformity in expressing acidity in milk or cream. 42 



CHAPTER IV. 

Acidity Tests. 

43. Mann's acidity test. The solution is prepared 
by dissolving forty grams of caustic soda in water, 
making a total volume of 1000 c.c. This makes the 
normal solution. A tenth normal solution, which is 
the strength generally used at present for testing 
acidity, is made by dissolving four grams of caustic 
soda in one quart of water. One c.c. of the tenth 
normal solution contains .004 grams of soda and will 
neutralize .009 grams of lactic acid. Mann, in his 
directions for using this method, recommends the 
use of a 50 c.c. pipette for measuring the cream 
or milk. A 50 c.c, a 20 c.c, or a 17.6 c.c pipette 
may be used. In using the different sizes of pipettes 
factors may be used to simplify the process. These 
factors are found by dividing .009 by the size in c.c. 
of the pipette and multiplying the quotient by 100. 
Factors for different sized pipettes are as follows : 

(.009^-50) X100=.018 (.009-^20) Xl00=.045 
(.009-^25) X100=.036 (.009--17.6) Xl00=.051 

How to use the factors: Use .018 with a 50 c.c. 
pipette ; .036 with a 25 cc pipette ; .045 with a 20 c.c 
pipette; and .051 with a 17.6 c.c. pipette. 

To illustrate : Suppose a 50 c.c. pipette is used in 
taking a sample of cream, and the solution used to 
neutralize the acidity is 30 cc, the factor is .018. 

38 



ACIDITY TESTS. 39 

The acidity in the cream would be 30X.018 or .54 

per cent, or 

30X.009 ,^^ ^ 

— Xl00=-54 per cent. 

50 

44. Suppose a 17.6 c.c. pipette is used, requiring 
10 c.c. of solution to neutralize the acidity, the fac- 
tor which is found as follows (.009^17.6) Xl00=.051 
and the acidity of the cream would be found by mul- 
tiplying the factor by 10, or .051X10^.51 per cent. 

1 7 ft 

Acidity of cream= '-—— X100=.51 per cent, or 

10X.009 ^ 

Acidity of cream= . 051 X 10= • 51 per cent, or for 
practical purposes the acidity may be found by di- 
viding 10 c.c. by 2, giving the acidity of .50 per cent. 
The factor which corresponds with each size of pi- 
pette is to be multiplied by the number of c.c. of 
solution used to neutralize each sample. The result 
is the acidity in per cent. These calculations are 
based upon a one-tenth normal solution. The figure 
.009 is the number of c.c. of lactic acid neutralized 
by one c.c. of the solution used. As a rule when 
Mann's acid test is used, a 50 c.c. pipette is used. 
Those who are accustomed to the use of the 50 c.c. 
pipette usually give the number of c.c. of solution 
used, from the burette, and not the per cent of acid- 
ity in the milk or cream. Acidity should, however, 
be expressed in per cent, as this is the only logical 
and reasonable method of expressing it. If the so- 
lution weakens from age before it is all used, a fresh 
solution of standard strength should be procured. 

45. Mann's acidity test apparatus. 1, iron burette 
stand, with cork lined clamp ; 1, 50 c.c. burette, grad- 



40 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

uated in tenths of a cubic centimeter; 1, 50 c.c pi- 
pette; 1, 50 c.c. beaker; 1 glass funnel; 1 glass stir- 
ring rod ; 1 pinch cock and rubber connections, with 
glass tip ; 1 gallon of one-tenth normal solution, and 
1 4-oz. bottle of phenolphtalien. 

46. The Farrington alkaline tablet solution. The 
Farrington tablet solution can be used in three ways : 
First by dissolving five tablets in 85 c.c. of soft 
water; second by dissolving five tablets in 97 c.c. 
of soft water, and third by dissolving one tablet in 
one ounce of soft water. In using the first method 
a 20 c.c pipette is used. One c.c. of the solution (five 
tablets to 85 c.c. of water) will neutralize .01 per 
cent acidity in the sample tested, and 20 c.c. of the 
solution would neutralize .20 per cent acidity. In 
using the second method (five tablets to 97 c.c. of 
water) a 17.6 c.c. pipette is used. The number of 
c.c. of solution used represents, as in the first meth- 
od, the same amount of acidity neutralized; thus, 
if 20 c.c. of solution have been used the acidity is 
.20 per cent. 

This method is a very desirable one as it needs no 
mathematical calculation and a 17.6 c.c. pipette can 
be found in every creamery. The tablets will keep 
better than a solution ; they can be procured by mail 
from creamery supply houses and the solution is 
very easily prepared. With Mann's method the 
solution is as a rule prepared by a chemist. 

47. Farrington standard acidity test apparatus. 1 
Babcock 17.6 c.c. pipette ; 1 white cup ; 2, 100 c.c. 
graduated cylinders; 1 box of 1,000 tablets. 



ACIDITY TESTS. 41 

48. Farrington rapid method acidity test. This 
method for determining acidity in milk or cream is 
used mainly where quick results are desired and 
when a great number of tests must be made in a 
short time. For selecting milk for pasteurizing or 
for testing milk quickly for city supply this test is 
indispensable because it is convenient and accurate 
and the solution is very easily prepared. 

49. How the solution is prepared. Take one al- 
kaline tablet and dissolve it in one ounce of soft 
water and when dissolved use as needed. Do not 
prepare more of the solution than is needed for a 
day or two. When all is not used soon after pre- 
paring pour it into a bottle and cork well or else 
throw it away and prepare a fresh solution when 
needed. 

50. How to use the test. This test is based upon 
the use of equal quantities of cream or milk and 
solution. A measure of the same size as that used 
for measuring the cream or milk must be used for 
measuring the solution. One measure of the solu- 
tion added to an equal measure of milk or cream 
represents .10 per cent acidity and two measures 
represents .20 per cent, and so on. Half per cents 
can be obtained by a half measure of the solution. 
Stop adding solution when a light pink shade ap- 
pears. This applies to all the acidity tests men- 
tioned. 

51. The necessary apparatus. 1 white cup, a good 
sized one preferred ; 1 measure for measuring cream 
and solution, any size preferred, may be 5 grams, 
6 grams or 8 grams. This method can be used in 



42 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

testing cream for acidity for butter making. Re- 
sults are quite accurate when test is properly 
handled. 

52. Uniformity in expressing acidity in milk or 
cream. Acidity in milk or cream should always be 
expressed in per cent, and not by degrees, by cubic 
centimeters or by the name of a certain acid test. 
When we consider that there are several different 
acid tests now in use by which the acidity in milk 
or cream is determined, and that each test is based 
upon different mathematical calculations, the neces- 
sity for expressing the results on one basis is ob- 
vious. The different quantities of solution used to 
produce a given coloration, or to neutralize a given 
quantity of lactic acid, varies with each test. There- 
fore, it seems that the results obtained by the use 
of any one test can best be expressed in per cent. 
Acidity expressed in per cent carries with it a defin- 
ite quantitative meaning, while when the per cent 
of acidity in milk or cream is expressed in cubic 
centimeters, in degrees, or by the name of a certain 
acid test, the meaning is not always clear and 
definite. 



CHAPTER V. 

COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN 
BUTTER MAKING. 



Success in butter making rests primarily 
upon the extent of our knowledge of the 
fundamental principles involved in con- 
trolling lactic acid fermentations. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER V. 



Par. No. Page. 

53. Pure lactic acid cultures 45 

54. Methods change as we gain knowledge 45 

55. Commercial starters in buttermaking 46 

56. Condensed directions for building up the startoline 

and starter from a pure culture of lactic ferment 47 

57. Selection of milk for starter 48 

58. Preparing milk for the first propagation 49 

59. Adding the lactic ferment culture 49 

60. Handling the second propagation 50 

61. Handling the third propagation 50 

62. Handling the startoline 51 

63. Startoline incubators 52 

64. Handling the starter 52 

65. Temperatures and quantities 53 

66. Temperatures influence results 53-55 

67. Using starters every other day 55 

68. Effect of too high acid starters 55 

69. Vigor of starters and how controlled 56 

70. Eipening starters 56 

71. Starters a check on gassy fermentation 57 

72. How gassy cream appears 57 

73. How gassy cream churns 57-58 

74. Gassy fermentation kills flavor in butter 58 

75. Lactic acid ripened cream 58 

76. Average acidity in starter 58 

77. Eegulating the quality of acid in both startoline 

and starter 59 

78. Eegarding pink or brown starter 60 

79. Burnt flavor in starter due to milk used 60 

80. A starter scoring blank . 61 

81. Judging starters 61 

82. Eegarding glassware 62 

83. Utensils which should not be used 63 

84. Gassy fermentation and flies 64 

85. Starters in cream ripening 64-65 

86. Eaw or pasteurized cream 65 

87. Per cent of starter to be added to cream 66 

88. Eichness of cream and per cent of starter 66-67 

89. Temperature and time in ripening cream 68 

90. A few things to remember regarding starters 68 



CHAPTER V. 
Commercial Starters in Butter Making. 

53. Pure lactic acid cultures. In American as well 
as in European butter making the pure lactic acid 
culture has played an important part in the last 
decade. It became known that lactic acid fermenta- 
tion was the main factor in giving to butter the 
characteristic flavor and aroma so pronounced in 
butter made from well ripened cream. Pure lactic 
acid bacteria, in sufficient numbers, have a tendency 
toward retarding and destroying the growth of un- 
desirable bacteria in cream. Authorities on dairy- 
ing recognize the value of a pure lactic acid cul- 
ture as a means of improving the poorer grades of 
cream and insuring the production of more uni- 
formly good butter. Since modern dairy education 
demands a knowledge of the handling of pure cul- 
tures, and of their use in butter making, it seems 
advisable to emphasize the need of a pure culture in 
creamery butter making. 

54. Methods change as we gain knowledge. In 
proportion as we gain knowledge of the use of a 
pure lactic ferment culture in butter making do our 
methods change and readjust themselves to changed 
conditions. Where improper methods still prevail 
financial returns are less and poor quality of butter 
and cheese is not uncommon. Even with modern 
methods of manufacture there are times when the 
quality of butter and cheese is not as good as it 
might be. This in a measure is due to the lack of 

45 



46 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

knowledge of a wonderful flavor-producing organ- 
ism called the lactic acid germ. This little plant is 
today looked upon as the greatest money making 
organism of any affecting milk and its products. The 
lactic acid germ is the most vigorous germ, under 
normal temperatures with which the dairyman has 
to deal, and when properly cared for it is his best 
friend and is used as a medium through which a 
great many difficulties arising from abnormal fer- 
mentation in milk or cream may be overcome. By 
its careful use abnormal fermentations affecting the 
quality of butter may readily be prevented and the 
best flavor insured. It is known to butter makers 
that by using a good pure culture of lactic ferment 
in the manufacture of their product, the value has 
been increased from one to two cents a pound; in 
some cases as much as five cents. 

55. Commercial starters in butter making. Butter 
making today without a starter is like running ma- 
chinery without oil. Whenever a prosperous cream- 
eryman is found you are sure to find that a commer- 
cial starter is used in the manufacture of his butter 
because pure lactic acid enhances the keeping qual- 
ity of butter. 

Various methods of handling and souring cream 
have been tried, but so far the best results have 
been obtained by using a large quantity of a pure 
starter, and ripening the cream to about .55 per cent 
acidity. Lactic acid acts as a germicide on obnox- 
ious germs and prevents the development of bad 
flavors and taints present in cream or milk. 



COMMERCIAL STAETEES IN BUTTEE MAKING. 47 

A good lactic ferment is a great purifier and 
should be used by every butter maker. Gas or 
yeast organisms have an injurious effect on the 
aroma, flavor and body of butter. 

As a further proof of the value of a pure lactic 
acid culture in butter making I may mention that 
at the Educational Scoring Exhibitions now carried 
on in all dairy states the highest average scores are, 
in every instance, received by exhibitors of butter 
and cheese who use a pure culture, 

56. Condensed directions for building up the Start- 
oline and starter from a pure culture of lactic fer- 
ment. 

(a) Preparing the Start oline or mother starter. 

1. First we inoculate a small quantity of pasteur- 
ized milk with a pure culture of lactic ferment, 
known in the market as lactic ferment culture. This 
when coagulated makes the first propagation and is 
called Startoline. Startoline is the small quantity 
from which larger quantities are grown. 

2. The next day when this milk is sour or suf- 
ficiently ripened, a small quantity of it is added to 
fresh pasteurized milk. This is the second propaga- 
tion. 

3. A third propagation is made in the same way, 
by adding a little of the second propagation to pas- 
teurized milk, a fourth in the same way, and so on 
day after day until the starter shows signs of de- 
terioration, when it becomes necessary to prepare a 
new batch of Startoline with a fresh commercial 
starter. 



48 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

(b) Preparing the starter. 

While the propagation of Startoline is carried on 
day after day for an indefinite time, as before indi- 
cated, a sufficient quantity of it should be prepared 
every day after the second or third propagation, not 
only to perpetuate the Startoline itself, but also to 
inoculate the starter milk. The starter when fully 
ripened is used in the cream for butter making or 
the milk for cheese making. 

In carrying out the processes as outlined above 
the first thing to be taken into consideration is : 

57. The selection of milk. To obtain the best re- 
sults it is necessary to use only the cleanest, sweet- 
est and freshest milk, from a healthy herd and from 
one having few strippers. Stripper milk being too 
viscous and lacking fine flavor, is not as good for 
starter making as fresher cow's milk. Mixed milk 
as it is generally delivered at the creamery or cheese 
factory is unsatisfactory for making a first-class 
starter. The best milk, either evening or morning 
milk, should be used. An observant operator soon 
learns which of his patrons brings the best milk 
for starter making and this is the milk to use. Milk 
having an old taste will impart the same to the start- 
er. In fact defective milk will produce a defective 
starter even though the best of care has been exer- 
cised in the handling of it. An experienced butter 
or cheese maker soon learns how to tell old or kept 
over milk from new or fresh milk even though both 
are cold. The new or morning milk always is soft 
and velvety to the palate, while old milk is harsh 
to the palate and lacks fineness of flavor. 



COMMEECIAL STAETEES IN BUTTEE MAKING. 49 

58. Preparing milk for the first propagation. (Per- 
not.^ ) The preparation of milk for the propagation 
of a pure culture is very simple. Select two quarts 
of good sweet whole milk or skim milk for this pur- 
pose. (Either may be used satisfactorily but sweet 
whole milk gives the Startoline more of a smooth, 
pleasing taste than skim milk does.) Set two vessels 
each containing one quart of milk into water and 
heat it to 170° F.— 190° F. and hold at this tempera- 
ture for about forty minutes. Cool quickly to 80° 
F. and it is then ready for the addition of the pure 
culture. For very large creameries use a large sized 
bottle of pure culture and use one gallon of milk 
divided into two jars of two quarts each. An excel- 
lent method is to place the jars of selected milk in a 
steam tight, wooden, tin-lined box the temperature 
of which can be perfectly regulated and pasteuriza- 
tion assured. Another method is to tie parchment 
paper over the necks of the jars and then place the 
jars on a shelf through which steam is conducted. 
Turn a large tin pail over them, turn on the steam 
and heat as mentioned above. Then cool by placing 
the jars first in warm water (to avoid breaking 
them) and then gradually running cold water around 
them. 

59. Adding the lactic ferment culture. When 
the milk is prepared as previously directed get the 
little bottle of pure culture, clean the sealing wax 
carefully from the neck of the bottle and empty 
one-half of the contents into each bottle of the pas- 
teurized milk. Now close the jars or vessels con- 

^ Pernot, E. F. Bui. No. 83. Oreg-on, 1904. 
4 



50 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

taining the milk, being careful not to get any dust or 
impurities into the milk. Shake the jars five or six 
times at intervals of three or four minutes, then let 
stand at a temperature of about 80° F. until nicely 
coagulated. This is called the first generation and 
each consecutive propagation is one generation. 
Thirty consecutive propagations are thirty genera- 
tions. Each souring is considered one germ life and 
therefore we have one generation at every propaga- 
tion. Whether the milk is pasteurized in the same 
vessel in which the Startoline is to be grown or in a 
separate vessel and the Startoline jars sterilized 
before putting the milk into them, the milk should 
always be in the jars before the culture is put into it. 
After the culture has been added to the milk and it 
has coagulated it is called ^'Startoline." 

60. The second propagation. The milk used for 
the second propagation is handled the same as the 
milk used for the first inoculation of the pure cul- 
ture, except that the temperature at which the milk 
is set should be 75° F. or about five degrees lower 
than the temperature used for the first propagation. 
This temperature may vary slightly according to the 
methods employed and to the skill of the person 
handling the starter. Add about two tablespoon- 
fuls of sour milk from the first propagation to each 
quart of the milk for the second propagation and use 
about the same proportions for each succeeding 
propagation. 

61. The third propagation. Whenever it is neces- 
sary to make more than two propagations of a pure 
culture before it is used for inoculating the starter 



COMMERCIAL STARTEES IN BUTTER MAKING. 51 

milk to be used in butter or cheese making, set the 
milk for the Startoline at about 70° F. If the second 
propagation is used to inoculate the starter milk, 
set the starter milk at about 72° F. in winter, al- 
lowing a few degrees for the lowering of the temper- 
ature. Set it at about 68° F. in summer. The subse- 
quent propagations may be set at temperatures 
ranging from 65° to 70° F., depending upon the 
quantity of Startoline used and temperature of the 
room. 

62. Handling the Startoline. From the foregoing 
we see that we obtain our Startoline by inoculating 
pasteurized milk with a pure lactic ferment culture 
and allowing it to coagulate. For the perpetuation 
of the Startoline the milk may be taken daily from 
the can of milk pasteurized for the starter, or it 
may be prepared as directed on page 49. Have 
the pasteurized milk and the Startoline jars ready, 
break up the coagulated Startoline by shaking 
and add about two tablespoonfuls to each jar 
filled nearly full with the pasteurized milk. Now 
shake thoroughly and set at a temperature of 65° 
F. to 70° F. Vary the quantity of Startoline added 
to each jar according to the conditions of the Starto- 
line and to possible variations in temperature during 
the ripening process. In ordinary room tempera- 
ture (68° F.) when two tablespoonfuls of Startoline 
are added to the milk it will coagulate in 12-18 
hours. When the Startoline is in danger of getting 
overripe before it can be used break it up thorough- 
ly and pour out about one-half; then fill the jar 
again with pasteurized milk, shake well and set 



52 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

in a cool place. This will lower the acidity and give 
the lactic acid germs a chance to multiply and re- 
tain their vitality which is essential in growing 
good Startoline. 

63. Startoline incubators. There are various con 
trivances on the market made especially for the pur- 
pose of handling the Startoline or ''Mother Starter." 
These may be obtained from any reliable creamery 
supply house at a reasonable cost. They are so made 
that a uniform temperature can be maintained dur- 
ing the ripening of the Startoline. This uniformity 
of temperature is necessary for obtaining good re- 
sults. Where electricity can be had a very uniform 
temperature is easily maintained by placing one in- 
candescent bulb in the interior of the incubator 
and turning on the electricity. A common, double- 
walled, tin-lined, wooden box can be used with suc- 
cess in this manner. In very cold weather if there 
is danger of the room temperature dropping too 
low, two bulbs may be used instead of one. 

64. The handling of the starter. The care to be 
exercised in selecting, heating and cooling milk for 
the starter is not necessarily different from that to 
be exercised in the handling of the milk for the Star- 
toline. The can or cans used for making the starter 
should be well tinned and all seams should be smooth 
to allow it to be easily and thoroughly cleaned. Old 
cans, especially when the tin is worn off or when 
they are somewhat rusty, will impart a "tin can" 
flavor to the milk which will impair the usefulness 
of the milk for starter making. The best starter 
cans are those which produce a vigorous whirling 



COMMEECIAL STAETERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 53 

of the milk to prevent scorching while heating and 
to facilitate rapid cooling. The per cent of Startoline 
necessary to be added to the starter milk depends, 
first, on the temperature of the starter milk when the 
Startoline is added ; second, on the average tempera- 
ture at which the milk will be kept during the ripen- 
ing period ; third, on the time allowed for the starter 
to ripen before it is to be used; and fourth, on the 
vigor and acidity of the Startoline added. 
65. Temperatures and quantities. 

Temperatures and Quantities. 
TABLE I. 



Quan- 
tity of 


Quan. of 
Milk 


Eang-e of Temperatures 


Startoline added ex- 
pressed in 


Milk. 


approx. 












lbs. 


gal. 


In Winter 


In Summer 


Lbs. 


Per Ct. 


Qts. 


100 


12 


68-70° F. 


62-67° F. 


1-5 


1-5+ 


*-2^ 


200 


24 


68-73° F. 


63-67° F. 


2-10 


1-5 


1-5 


300 


36 


68-73° F. 


63-68° F. 


3-15 


1-5 


^-^ 


400 


48 


68-71° F. 


64-68° F. 


4-20 


1-5 


2-10 


500 


60 


68-70° F. 


65-68° F. 


6-25 


1+-5 


3-12* 


1000 


]20 


68-70° F. 


68-70° F. 


15-40 


IM 


7^-20 


5000 


600 


68-70° F. 


68-70° F. 


100-500 


2-108 


50-250 



66. Explanation of conditions. The larger the per 
cent of Startoline added to the starter milk and the 
higher the temperature at which it is kept, the short- 
er is the period of time between the inoculation and 
coagulation. The smaller the per cent of Startoline 
added to the starter milk and the lower the tempera- 
ture at which it is kept the longer will be the period 
of time between inoculation and coagulation. It 
will be noticed in Table I that the range of tempera- 
tures given are not so great when large quantities 
of starter milk are used as when smaller quantities 



54 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

are used. This is due to tlie fact that the larger 
the quantity of milk the less does it change in tem- 
perature during the ripening period. Small quanti- 
ties of milk naturally are more subjected to changes 
in temperature. This is especially true in very cold 
and very warm weather when temperatures go to 
either extreme. 

Being influenced by these conditions the average 
temperature at which the starter can be grown 
may vary from 64° F. to 68° F. with practically the 
same results. 

When the starter is at the point of coagulation at 
a temperature higher than 64° F. — 66° F. and is not 
to be used at once, immediate cooling is imperative, 
since the starter is likely to become overripe and 
whey off, a condition in which a starter is almost 
unfit for use, as its action is greatly impaired by this 
condition and the effect it should produce is partly 
or wholly destroyed. It is a good plan to see to it 
that the starter coagulates at a temperature lower 
than 64° F. if it is not to be used at once, since when 
coagulation takes place at a comparatively low tem- 
perature the texture of the starter is more likely to 
be loose and silky. When in this condition it will 
when poured have the appearance of nicely ripened 
cream and will leave no streaks, nor will it shoT^ 
specks or particles of curd. On the other hand 
starters grown at too low temperature and for toa 
long a period of time before coagulation invariably 
develop sour, slightly bitter, rank or flat flavors, 
thereby impairing their usefulness for perpetuation. 
It is perhaps needless to say that the Startoline 



COMMEECIAL STARTEES IN BUTTER MAKING. 55 

should not be saved out from the starter. During 
the hot season the starter should not be inoculated 
in the morning for the next morning's use unless 
perfect control of temperature can be had, because 
when it has developed quite a degree of acidity be- 
fore cooling in the evening it is difficult to prevent 
its becoming overripe before it is used next morn- 
ing. When the starter milk is inoculated in the 
evening with Startoline of good quality and proper 
acidity the starter will as a rule be in good con- 
dition in the morning. During cool weather, how- 
ever, there is not much danger of the starter spoil- 
ing when set in the morning, cooled a little before 
evening and the ripening finished at a lower temper- 
ature. 

67. Using starters every other day. When the 
starter is used only every other day it is always bet- 
ter to renew the Startoline daily and reheat the 
starter milk the second day than to hold over both 
the starter and Startoline. By holding over the Star- 
toline and starter the development of acid may be 
too rapid and by producing an excess of acid the 
quality of both the Startoline and starter is impair- 
ed and may be spoiled altogether, or cheesy, curdy 
or vinegar flavors produced. 

68. Too high acid starters. It is a well known 
fact that after the acidity in the Startoline or start- 
er has developed to about .8 per cent the strength of 
the acid present retards and finally prevents the pro- 
duction of a good quality of lactic acid necessary 
in butter or cheese making. After such a stage is 
reached the quality of the acid undergoes changes. 



56 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

The first change noticeable is the change to a vine- 
gar flavor, a little later it will show signs of whey- 
ing off and then in many cases a digesting of the 
curd begins. All these signs are indications of the 
weakening of the lactic acid germ. Therefore great 
care must be taken to prevent the development of 
too high acid in the Startoline. It should not have 
more than .7 per cent acid at any time and it is best 
not to exceed .65 per cent in order to maintain a fine 
quality of acid in both Startoline and starter. A 
high degree of lactic acid weakens the lactic acid 
germ and in many cases kills it. 

69. Vigor of starters. Starters seem to have 
reached the maximum activity when they have de- 
veloped about .60 per cent acidity. (RusselP.) 
Creamerymen have noticed that starters are not 
always of the same vigor, even when there seems to 
be no special reason for any variation. When start- 
ers are ripened too high the activity is lessened and 
Ihe starter is said to be "slow" or is ''going off," 
and a few successive high ripenings may spoil the 
starter altogether. When the acidity has reached .70 
or .80 per cent the starter is losing its vigor as well 
as its fine flavor. Avoid too high acid in the starter 
as well as too slow ripening. Both have a bad eft'ect 
upon the flavor and vigor of the starter. 

70. Ripening starters. The degree of acidity to 
which starters are ripened before being added to 
cream varies according to reports from 100 of the 
best creamerymen in the United States from .45 to 
.80 per cent. This variation is due to different meth- 

^ Russell, H. L. Wis. B. M. Assn. Fifth Annual Report, p. 58. 



COMMEECIAL STAETEES IN BUTTEE MAKING. 57 

ods of handling and ripening cream and different 
methods of using the starter. The degree of acidity 
also depends upon the kind of cream handled — that 
is, whether it is whole milk or hand separator cream. 
How gassy fermentation in cream affects the qual- 
ity of butter. 

71. Commercial starters a check on gassy fermenta- 
tion. That gassy fermentation in cream has a 
detrimental effect on the aroma flavor and body of 
butter was clearly shown by results obtained from 
experiments carried on while instructor in practical 
buttermaking at the Wisconsin Dairy School. A 
lot of cream was pasteurized, and divided into two 
parts. One part was ripened with a pure lactic 
acid culture, and the other lot was ripened with a 
culture of gassy organisms prepared in the bacterio- 
logical department of the School of Agriculture. 
The lot of cream which was inoculated with the 
gassy culture was held at ripening temperature for 
about ten hours, and at the end of that time showed 
a re-action of .55 per cent on the acid test. The cream 
was held cold for several hours and then churned. 
Everything incident to the ripening, cooling and 
churning of the cream, and the washing and salting 
of the butter was performed in the usual way. 

72. Appearance of the gassy cream. The body 
was slightly huffy and porous; the color rather 
whiter than that of ordinary cream, and the flavor 
was flat, oily and yeasty. 

73. Churning of gassy cream. This cream did not 
churn as ordinary cream does. The granules for 
some reason did not solidify during churning as 



58 



MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 



they do in other cream. (Fleischmann^.) The 
butter was washed and worked in the usual way, 
and when examined at the conclusion of working, 
was found to have a mushy, soft, oily body. The 
flavor was oily, greasy, yeasty and slightly alcoholic. 
The bouquet was altogether absent. 

74. There is no other fermentation in cream more 
destructive to the natural flavor, aroma and body 
of butter than yeasty or gassy fermentation. There- 
fore it is necessary to use a pure lactic ferment cul- 
ture — a real lactic acid producer — to check the 
growth of undesirable fermentations in cream, and 
produce fine flavored as well as fine textured butter. 

Since the average consumer is willing to pay a 
higher price for fine flavored butter than for the 
poorer grades, it is the duty of the creameryman to 
use a pure lactic ferment culture, in order to achieve 
the best results. 

75. Lactic acid ripened cream. This lot of cream 
had a fine flavor and aroma, and a smooth body. It 
churned in the normal way and the butter made 
from it was very fine and clean. 

76. Grouping one hundred creameries showing the 
degree of acidity to which the starter was ripened. 

TABLE II. 



Grouping One Hundred Creameries Showing the Degree 
of Acidity to Which the Starter Was Ripened. 


Number of Creamerymen 
using the same per cent, 
of Acidity. 


5 


5 


16 


21 


22 


22 


4 


' 


Total 

100 


Per cent, of Acidity 


.45 


.50 


.55 


.60 


.65 


.70 


.75 


.80 


AVg 

.62 



■ Fleischmann, W. The Book of the Dairy. Chap. IV, p. 159, Par. 82 



COMMEECIAL STAETEES IN BUTTEE MAKING. 59 

The average of .62 per cent is about the proper 
acidity which the starter should have for butter mak- 
ing in the average creamery. Where hand separator 
cream is used the starter may be ripened to a higher 
acid than where whole milk cream is used. The 
greater the extent of undesirable fermentations in 
cream the higher may the starter be ripened. How- 
e^'jv, I should not advise ripening the starter higher 
than .75 per cent. 

77. Regulating the quality of acid in both Starto- 
line and starter. When Startoline, due to neglect 
in handling, produces a low acidity and a sweet 
flavor in the starter this can be remedied by ripen- 
ing the Startoline to a higher degree of acidity for 
several days. Also if the starter is not properly 
handled and is slow in coagulating, its activity can 
be increased by ripening the Startoline at a tem- 
perature higher than usual and using a larger quan- 
tity of Startoline. The slowest Startoline can be 
made more active by a few days of this treatment. 
If a starter is too acid in flavor it can be brought 
back to a mild, pleasant flavor by ripening it to a 
lower degree of acidity. This is especially notice- 
able if the starter is cooled to about 56° F. soon 
after it is set, before the acidity has developed much, 
held at this temperature about 5-8 hours and then 
warmed to about 75° F. in order to hasten coagula- 
tion. On examination at the time of coagulation it 
will be found that the acid is of a mild, pleasant taste. 
When this method is used the starter must be used 
at once, because the high temperature favors curdling 



60 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

and wheying off and the possible production of 
alcoholic fermentations. 

78. The pink or brown starter. Heating the start- 
er milk twice to about boiling point has a very detri- 
mental effect on the quality of both the milk sugar 
and the lactic acid. There are more starters spoil- 
ed by overheating the milk than many butter makers 
imagine. The milk invariably takes on a brownish 
color when overheated. This indicates that the milk 
sugar has caramelized by reason of having been 
scorched. By changing the condition of the sugar, 
an inferior quality of lactic acid is produced. It 
is only natural that when the milk sugar is scorched, 
the starter will have a burnt flavor. This flavor 
is also imparted to the butter by the use of such a 
starter and it destroys the fine ''bouquet" so desir- 
able in butter. Such a starter is usually spoken 
of as a pink or brown starter and as having a scorch- 
ed or burnt flavor. 

79. Burnt flavor in starter due to milk used. 
There is a peculiar flavor in the milk of some herds 
during the fall, known as a burnt flavor. This 
peculiarity usually manifests itself more frequently 
during the corn cutting season than at any other time 
of the year. This flavor seems to be due to the ex- 
cessive feeding of corn stalks, com stubbles, frozen 
grasses and half dead herbage. Dairymen know that 
corn cutting knives and the knives of the feed cut- 
ter become heavily coated with a gummy, sweetish 
substance from the juices of the corn. This smells 
a trifle tarry and the same odor can be found in 
the milk when it flows from the separator or when 



COMMERCIAL STARTEES IN BUTTER MAKING. 61 

heated in the starter can. I have known many in- 
stances where this flavor was easily noticeable in 
the starter and also in the butter made from such 
milk. 

80. A starter scoring blank. 



Name Date 



Address 





Perfection 
Points 


Remarks 


Aroma 


20 


Clean, slightly acid, reasonably pro- 
nounced, free from taints. 


Flavor 


50 


Clean, mild acid taste, free from curdy, 
cheesy and fermented flavors. 


Body 


30 


Before breaking up— close, smooth, no 
gas bubbles; after breaking up- 
smooth, creamy, silky. 


Total 


100 





81. Judging starters. The same scale of points ap- 
plies to the judging of the starter and of the Starto- 
line. Also in nearly every case the defects found in 
one will be found in the other. The Startoline should 
sour in a reasonable length of time if so intended by 
the person in charge of it. The body should be 
smooth and firm when well coagulated and it should 
be free from gas bubbles and whey. When shaken 
up and poured it should resemble the consistency of 
well ripened cream and should be smooth and free 
from lumps and granulations. The aroma should be 



62 MODEEN BUT TEE MAKING, 

of a clean, pure, acid nature, and be reasonably pro- 
nounced. The flavor should be clean and without 
cheesy or curdy taints. When broken up by shak- 
ing and held at a low temperature it should not whey 
off very soon. Wheying off readily, indicates the 
Aveakening of the lactic acid organisms, and the ap- 
pearance of flat, weak or dull flavors. When such 
a condition arises a new culture must be set at once, 
since the starter shows signs of "running out" and 
may at any time fail to produce a good flavored acid. 
82. Use glassware. Whenever obtainable, glass- 
ware should be used in growing the Startoline, be- 
cause when glassware is cleaned and sterilized it may 
be stoppered and left for a day or longer without ac- 
quiring a bad odor. The only smell which manifests 
itself upon opening a glass vessel which has been 
closed for some time is a dead-air smell. This is 
not the case with a tin vessel, for no matter how 
carefully cleaned and sterilized it may be, if it is 
closed tightly for several hours a very offensive odor 
is noticeable upon opening it. This odor somewhat 
resembles fermented milk or an old tin can. Due 
to contamination from this source all tinware used 
for growing the Startoline should be discarded and 
replaced by glass vessels. A few glass, quart or 
gallon jars with glass stoppers, in addition to the 
utensils already at hand, are all that are needed for 
handling the Startoline. Glass jars can very easily 
be sterilized either by boiling them for five minutes 
or by applying live steam to them by placing them 
under a pail turned over a steam jet. Glassware 



COMMEECIAL STARTEES IN BUTTER MAKING. 63 

should be used in handling the Startoline whether 
it be in a large or a small creamery. Where large 
quantities of Startoline are required use several 
gallon jars with glass stoppers. 

83. Utensils which should not be used. China 
ware should not be used because the glazed surface 
cracks very easily and the vessel will absorb milk 
which will create offensive odors and contaminate 
the Startoline. Earthenware, such as crocks of any 
type, should not be used as they are worse than 
china ware. Either china or earthenware can be used 
only for a short time, if necessary to use them at all, 
and they must be thoroughly cleaned and aerated 
before each time they are used. 

High grade enameled ware is very good and may 
be classed next to glassware for use in the handling 
of Startoline. Aluminum utensils are now being 
used in some creameries and promise to be among 
the best utensils for handling Startoline. 
Utensils in the order of their usefulness: 
1. — Glass. 2. — Enameled ware. 3. — Aluminum 
ware. 4. — High grade china. 5. — Tinware. 6. — 
Earthenware. 

84. Keep flies from the milk. We need hardly 
mention what a nuisance flies are around creameries 
and cheese factories, for this is well known. In 
order that we may more fully comprehend the im- 
portance of keeping the flies from falling into the 
milk or getting at the same for refreshment, we 
wish to call attention to some experiments carried 
on by Prof. F. C. Harrison of Ontario Agricultural 



64 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

College as given in Bulletin No. 41, in which he says : 
''Single flies were placed in test tubes containing 
a measured quantity of sterilized water and well 
shaken. This water on analysis was found to con- 
tain large numbers of gas producing bacteria. Fre- 
quently 50,000 bacteria were obtained from a single 
fly and of these over 20,000 were gas producing. ' ' Is 
it any wonder that the Startoline or starter does 
not always turn out as well as it should? I wish to 
emphasize the fact that it is not the pure culture 
that produces gas in starters, but the milk that was 
used which may have been contaminated by un- 
cleanly handling, or by imperfect pasteurization. 
Instances are known where the starter milk after 
pasteurization and cooling to 80° F. has risen up and 
crowded out of the starter can and the gassy curd 
fell onto the floor beside the starter can. This was 
due to gassy fermentation and these fermentations 
are very destructive to the finer flavors in butter or 
cheese. No high scoring butter can be made from 
cream in which gassy fermentations are present in 
any great degree. 

85. Starters in cream ripening. It has been found 
by both scientific men and practical dairymen that 
natural ripening of cream favors the development 
of undesirable flavors, unless the cream so ripened 
was produced and handled under the best sanitary 
conditions. Ideal sanitary conditions on dairy farms 
and in creameries do not as a rule now exist. There- 
fore in order that cream may be more uniformly 
ripened from day to day regardless of external ^on- 



COMMEECIAL STAETERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 65 

ditions and minor contaminations, a pure lactic fer- 
ment culture has been found indispensable in the 
controlling of undesirable fermentations in cream. 

H. W. Conn, in Practical Dairy Bacteriology, 
says: ''The use of starters has frequently been 
found valuable in avoiding undesirable taints and 
tastes in butter. These unpleasant flavors which 
in even the best creameries occur occasionally, can 
frequently be checked or remedied by the use of a 
considerable quantity of a proper starter." He also 
says: ''The acid which they (lactic acid bacteria) 
develop seems to be injurious to other species and 
these rapidly disappear as the lactic organisms in- 
crease in numbers. As a rule, therefore, milk which 
sours at about 70° F. will be found to contain near- 
ly a pure culture of a common lactic acid type, the 
other organisms, that were so abundant at the out- 
set having disappeared. ' ' 

86. Raw or pasteurized cream. Starters should 
be used in both raw and pasteurized cream, but it 
is only in pasteurized cream that the full benefit of 
a starter is realized, because in this cream lactic 
acid can develop without the interference of other 
fermentations. In raw cream, as a rule, a great 
variety of other fermentations thrive and therefore 
the full benefit of the starter is not always realized. 
Lactic acid develops faster in pasteurized than in un- 
pasteurized cream. The poorer the cream is in qual- 
ity the larger should be the quantity of starter added 
to it. 

5 



66 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

87. Per cent of starter to be added to cream. 

The per cent of starter necessary to be added to 
cream depends upon: (1) the quality of the cream; 
(2) the richness of the cream; (3) the kind of cream, 
whether whole milk or hand separator cream; (4) 
the temperature of the cream during ripening; (5) 
how long the cream is to ripen until the necessary 
acid has developed. In the order as mentioned 
above: (1) when the cream is impure add more 
starter; (2) the richer the cream the larger the 
per cent of starter should be added; (3) hand 
separator cream as a rule needs more starter 
than whole milk cream; (4) the higher the 
temperature of the cream the smaller is the per 
cent of starter to be added, and the lower the 
temperature of the cream the larger is the per 
cent of starter to be used in order that the cream 
may ripen in the allotted time; (5) the longer the 
time allowed for the cream to ripen the smaller is 
the per cent of starter necessary to use and the 
shorter the ripening period the larger must be the 
per cent of starter used. 

88. Richness of cream and per cent of starter. 
The following table shows the number of pounds of 
starter that may be added to cream containing a 
given per cent of butter fat and still have cream 
of churnable richness: 



COMMEECIAL STAETEES IN BUTTEE MAKING. 67 
TABLE III. 
Per Cent of Starter Added to Cream. 



Test of 
cream before 
add. starter. 


Different quantities of 

starter added to every 

100 lbs. cream. 


Test of Cream after adding 
the starter. 


60% Cream 


Adding 100 lbs. starter 

" 50 '* •* 
40 " 


Test after add. S. 30% 

" " " " 40% 


50% Cream 


Adding 100 lbs. starter 

50 " 
u 30 " 


Test after add. S. 257o 

" " 38%+ 


45% Cream 


Adding 


75 lbs. starter 
50 " 
25 " 


Test after add. S. 25%+ 
" " 30%+ 
" " 36%+ 


40% Cream 


Adding 

it 


75 lbs. starter 
50 " 
25 " 


Test after add. S. 23%+ 
" '• 26%+ 
" " 32% 


35% Cream 


Adding 


50 lbs. starter 

40 " 
20 " 


Test after add. S. 23%+ 

" " " " 25% 
" '• 29%+ 


80% Cream 


Adding 


30 lbs. starter 
25 " 
20 " 


Test after add. S. 23%+ 

" " 24% 
" " '* " 25% 


25% Cream 


Adding 


20 lbs. starter 
15 " 
10 " 


Test after add. S. 21—% 

u u 22_% 

" « 23— %o 



68 MODERN BUT TEE MAKING. 

89. Temperature and time in ripening cream. 

The best temperature for ripening cream at the 
average creamery is 67-69° F. in summer and 68-71° 
F. in winter. Where a large per cent of starter is 
used in cream lower temperatures may be used than 
when small quantities of starter are added. Due to 
these and other variations previously mentioned no 
definite length of time can be given in which to 
ripen cream. Considering the possible action of lac- 
tic acid and other fermentations on butter fat dur- 
ing the ripening period it seems that the shorter 
the period consumed in ripening cream the better 
is the quality of the butter. Try to adjust things 
so as not to ripen cream for a longer period than 
eight hours nor for a shorter period than three 
hours. 

90. A few thing's to remember. Remember that 
the lactic acid germ is a tiny, delicate plant. 

That heat may very easily destroy its life. 

That cold does it no injury whatever. 

That high acid weakens and finally kills it. 

That a temperature between 65-75° F. is most 
favorable for the production of a good quality of 
acid. 

Always use a thermometer when setting the star- 
ter. 

Never pasteurize without knowing the time and 
temperature applied. 

Never use old, acid or unclean milk. 

Never use anything but glassware or enameled 
ware for handling your Startoline. 

Try to be a good judge of conditions as they arise. 



COMMERCIAL STARTERS IN BUTTER MAKING. 69 

Have a well tinned starter can. Copper is poison 
to the good flavor of lactic acid, and retards its 
development. Pay proper attention to the details 
of the handling of the Startoline and a good quality 
of lactic acid will be the result. 

Do not think that the starter will take care of 
itself. 

Do not think that any kind of sweet milk is good 
for making a first-class starter. 



CHAPTER VI. 



CREAM RIPENING. 



By the ripening process is meant all the 
treatment which the cream receives from 
the time it is separated from the milk 
until it is put into the churn. 

— Henry H. Wing, 



INDEX TO CHAPTER VI. 



Par. No. ' Page. 

91. The process of cream ripening 72 

92. Amount of acidity necessary 72 

93. Scientists believe in cream ripening 72 

94. Fundamental principles involved 73 

95. Physical condition of cream 73 

96. Eesults sought for in cream ripening 74 

97. Natural ripening of cream 74 

98. Artificial ripening of cream 74 

99. Evil effects of high acid in cream 75 

100. Eipening temperature of cream 76 

101. Slow against fast ripening of cream 76 

102. How to preserve the quality of lactic acid 77 

103. Acidity in relation to the per cent of fat 77 

104. How high first class sweet cream may be ripened 78 

105. How to find terms used in Table IV 79 

106. Relative acidity in relation to fat test 79 

107. Diagram showing degrees of acidity 81 

108. Eeports from fifty-six creameries 81 

109. Ripening mixed sweet and sour cream 82 

110. Using large or small starter in cream 82 

111. Eipening hand separator cream 83 

112. Eipening pasteurized sweet cream 84 

113. A new method in cream ripening 84 



CHAPTER VI. 

Cream Ripening. 

91. The process of cream ripening should receive 
most careful consideration, as much depends upon its 
being properly performed. The commercial value 
of butter can be materially reduced by the improper 
ripening of the cream from which it is made. 

92. The amount of acidity necessary in cream at 
the time of churning depends more upon the con- 
dition of the cream at the beginning of the ripening 
process, than upon any other one factor. The de- 
gree and quality of acidity at churning time deter- 
mines to a great extent the flavor, body and grain 
of the butter when manufactured. The amount of 
starter to add to any cream depends upon the rich- 
ness of the cream and the methods employed in hand- 
ling it. The higher the acidity and the longer the 
cream has been held sour after a certain per cent 
of acidity has been developed, the sooner will the 
butter made from it lose its fine flavor. 

93. Ever since the introduction of butter making, 
even in its most primitive stage, the majority of prac- 
tical creamerymen and dairy scientists have held 
the opinion that properly ripened cream produces 
butter of better keeping quality than does unripened 
cream. It has also been found that soured cream 
has a greater churnability than sweet cream, due 
in part to the reduction of viscosity and possibly 
to other changes of which we are wholly or partly 

72 



CEEAM RIPENING. 73 

uninformed as yet. Undesirable fermentations are 
supposed to be retarded in cream and a process 
of purification established by the development of 
pure lactic acid fermentation in cream. 

04. Fundamental principles involved. Cream ripen- 
ing is a process of handling cream by which lactic 
acid fermentation is allowed to develop to a degree 
suitable to the American standard for sour cream 
butter. This fermentation may be the result of the 
natural ripening of cream or it may be brought 
about by the introduction of a pure lactic acid 
culture. The process called natural ripening of 
cream is gradually giving place to the artificial 
ripening of cream by means of the addition of a 
pure lactic ferment culture. The principles involved 
in the ripening of cream are the same now as they 
ever were. There is a difference in the methods used 
which is the result of study of the science and art 
of practical butter-making. 

95. The physical condition of cream is changed by 
the process of ripening. Sweet cream is smooth, 
thin, and of a velvety nature, unless very rich, while 
soured or ripened cream of the same richness as 
unripened cream, is much thicker and its flavor is 
rather coarse. The casein in sweet cream cannot be 
seen with the naked eye while in soured cream it is 
coagulated into fine particles by the action of lactic 
acid. During the souring process the color of the 
cream changes from a more or less yellowish tint 
to a whitish shade with a peculiar shiny or glossy 
surface. 



74 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

96. The results sought for in the ripening of cream 

are: To develop a definite flavor in the butter fat 
which is so much desired by the average American 
consumer, to lessen the viscosity of the cream and 
thereby increase its churnability and decrease losses 
in the buttermilk, to purify the cream, retard ab- 
normal fermentations and increase the keeping qual- 
ity of the butter as well as to make possible the 
manufacture of a more uniform quality of butter 
by ripening the cream to the same degree of acidity 
from day to day. 

97. Natural ripening of cream. By natural 
ripening of cream we understand that cream is 
soured without the addition of sour milk, buttermilk 
or any pure lactic acid culture. Since cream may 
contain a large number of different undesirable 
germs which may develop off flavors and gain the 
ascendency over the influence of lactic acid fermen- 
tations the natural ripening of cream is not always 
desirable. This is the reason that hand separator 
cream is so variable in its flavor. If instead of 
allowing it to sour naturally a good, pure, lactic 
acid starter were added to the cream the flavor 
of it would be much improved. 

98. Artificial ripening of cream. It is only dur- 
ing the last decade that artificial ripening of cream 
has become general and the process is looked upon 
by dairymen as being indispensable in the manu- 
facture of first class American creamery butter. The 
only difference between natural and artificial cream 
ripening is that in the latter a certain per cent of 
soured milk or cream ripened with a pure lactic 



CEEAM EIPENING. ^ 75 

ferment culture is added to the sweet cream and 
the cream allowed to sour at regular ripening tem- 
perature. This system is considered much superior 
to the natural ripening process and as a rule much 
better results are obtained by its use. Undesirable 
fermentations can be controlled and a more uniform 
product can be obtained. Coarse flavors can be 
partly eliminated and butter of finer and more deli- 
cate flavor can be manufactured. Since agreeable 
flavors in butter have a high commercial value it is 
absolutely necessary that a controlling factor be 
used every day in the year to insure a reasonably 
fine, pure and delicate flavor in butter. This can 
be accomplished in no better way than by the judi- 
cious use of a pure lactic ferment culture in the 
cream to be manufactured into butter. 

99. Evil effect of high acid in cream. It is well 
known that when a certain per cent of acid has de- 
veloped in cream the lactic acid undergoes a per- 
ceptible change easily recognized by taste or smell, 
or by the appearance of the cream. Lactic acid in 
whole or skimmed milk has reached its finest flavor 
when it has developed about .65-.75 per cent acidity, 
and in cream when about .55-.65 per cent acidity is 
reached. High acid in cream seems to favor the de- 
velopment of oily, sour, bitter, rancid, acid and 
coarse flavors in butter. It also impairs its keeping 
quality and reduces its market value besides destroy- 
ing the fine flavor and aroma belonging to properly 
ripened good cream. Cream should be ripened to a 
degree of acidity which conforms to the methods in 
use for the handling of it, that is — the kind of 



76 MODERK BUTTER MAKING. 

ripener used and the refrigerating or cooling system 
employed. Whatever system is used the cream 
should be handled in such a way as to guard against 
too high acidity at the time of churning. 

100. Ripening temperature of cream. The season 
of the year, the ripeners used, the per cent of starter 
added and the skill of the operator determine to 
some extent the temperature at which cream can 
be ripened. Therefore the temperatures which are 
used in ripening cream vary from 67° F to 72° F. 
in winter and from 64° F. to 69° F. in summer. If 
cream were always of the same acidity, age, purity 
and richness at the time of adding the starter, fewer 
variations in ripening temperatures would be neces- 
sary. Too high ripening temperatures have a ten- 
dency to produce oily and weak-bodied butter, while 
too low temperatures favor the development of old, 
flat and bitter flavors. 

101. Slow against fast ripening of cream. The 
fundamental principle involved in the ripening of 
cream is to develop a given per cent of acidity at a 
temperature which will favor the production of a 
fine quality of lactic acid. The temperature best 
suited to this seems to be between 65° F. and 72° F. 
Lactic acid will develop at a higher and also at a 
lower temperature than that given above, but the 
desired flavor is not produced at a much lower or 
much higher temperature. As a general rule fast 
ripening of cream is preferred for the reason that 
quick ripening usually favors the production of 
finer and milder flavored acid. It also helps to pre- 
vent the development of undesirable flavors in cream 



CKEAM RIPENING. 77 

during the ripening period which is one of the most 
critical periods in the handling of cream. Quick 
ripening of cream is as a rule associated with the 
use of a large per cent of starter of high quality to- 
gether with proper temperatures. On the other hand 
slow ripening of cream whether intentional or other- 
wise is associated with the emplojrcnent of low tem- 
peratures and the use of a small amount of starter 
or a starter of poor quality. The result usually is 
that cream ripened in this way will develop sour, 
flat, slightly bitter and other undesirable flavors. 

102. How to preserve the quality of lactic acid 
in cream. When cream is ripe — that is when enough 
acidity has developed, it should be cooled at once 
to a temperature low enough to prevent the develop- 
ment of acidity to any appreciable extent before 
churning. By cooling cream when ripe to 50° F. 
or lower the lactic acid can be preserved in good 
condition for about fourteen hours. Cool cream low 
enough to render the various fermentations inactive 
and the quality of the lactic acid will be preserved. 

103. Acidity in relation to the per cent of fat in 
cream. Since the development of lactic acid takes 
place only in the serum of cream and the per cent 
of serum varies in relation to the variations in the 
fat content, it seems but reasonable that the acidity 
in cream ought to vary in relation to the per cent of 
fat in cream. The lower the per cent of butter fat 
in cream the more serum it contains and the higher 
the per cent of butter fat in cream the less serum it 
contains. The per cent of serum in cream varies 
inversely as the per cent of fat varies, and the lactic 



78 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

acid necessary in cream is influenced by the varia- 
tion of the per cent of fat and the per cent of serum 
in the cream. The per cent of lactic acid to which 
cream of varying richness should be ripened will be 
found in table No. IV. on page 80. 

104. A first class sweet cream testing 30 per cent 
fat may be ripened to .60 per cent acidity without 
injuring the flavor, aroma or keeping quality of the 
butter. But whenever cream is a day or two old 
and has developed some acidity before arriving at 
the factory the ripening must not be so high as with 
good sweet cream. It has been found from practical 
experience that it is much better to vary the acidity 
in cream in relation to its fat content than to ripen 
all cream alike. Due to the difference in the test of 
various creams and to a slight change in the market 
in demanding milder acid flavored butter, it was 
found that a table which would serve as a guide 
would be useful to the creamery operator. The rela- 
tive acidity table on page 80 is a mathematical cal- 
culation based upon practical experience and gives 
the acidity of cream in relation to its fat content. The 
working basis on which this table is based and which 
is considered by practical creamerymen as the prop- 
er per cent of acidity in cream, is, that cream testing 
25 per cent butter fat be ripened to .60 per cent 
acidity. This is taken as a standard and is based upon 
sweet cream ripened to .60 per cent and is not based 
upon mixed cream of various ages and degrees of 
acidity. The latter kind of cream should be handled 
differently and we find in the column of mixed cream 
the per cent of acidity to which such cream may be 
ripened. This difference in the per cent of acidity is 



CEEAM EIPENING. 79 

made because when part of a batch of cream has been 
sour for some time before it is mixed with sweet 
cream and the whole batch after mixing is ripened to 
the same per cent of acidity to which sweet cream 
may be ripened without injury, the partly soured 
cream after being mixed with the sweet cream will 
easily show the effects of over ripening. This impairs 
the keeping quality of the butter and for this reason 
less acidity in such cream is recommended at the 
time of churning. 

105. How to find terms used in table No. IV. 
Per cent of butter fat in cream — By Babcock test. 
Per cent of serum in cream — 100 lbs. cream minus 
fat test. Factor .008 in relative acidity table — per 
cent acidity-^ (100 — per cent fat) =.008 per cent of 
acidity in one per cent of serum. 

Relative acidity^(100 — per cent fat in cream) X 
(.008-f-100)=acidity. 

Problem: Standard. Cream testing 25 per cent 
butter fat ripened to .60 per cent acidity. 

Formula: Acidity=.008X( 100-25^100) =.60 per 
cent. 

106. Table of relative acidity in cream in relation 
to the per cent of butter fat, from 20 per cent to 40 
per cent. 

The following table will serve to give an idea of 
the acidity to which cream of different richness 
may be ripened in order that it may have the same 
density or strength of acidity. However, cream may 
be ripened a little higher or lower in acidity than 
given in the table without materially injuring the 
flavor or keeping quality of the butter. Therefore, it 
must be understood that this table will not serve 



80 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



as a hard and fast rule in the ripening of cream. No 
one can lay down a rule for ripening cream which 
answers all conditions. Every butter maker in his 
own creamery and locality, must to some extent solve 
these problems in connection with the handling and 
ripening of cream for himself. Although this is the 
case, a standard may be useful in order to enable 
the butter maker to have better control of the situa- 
tion. The ripening of cream to a higher or lower 
per cent of acidity than that proposed in the stand- 
ard is influenced by the condition, age, acidity of 
cream before ripening, and the extent of abnormal 
fermentations present in the cream. 

TABLE IV. 

Table of Relative Acidity in Cream in Relation to the Per 
Cent of Butter Fat, From 20% to 40%. . ^ 
Standard Cream Test 25%, Acidity ^2^%. '^^ 



Per cent of 


Per cent of 


Per cent of 


Relative 


Eelative 


Butter fat in 


Serum in 


Acidity in 1% 


Acidity of 


Acidity of 


Cream 


Cream 


of Serum 


Cream 


vlixed Cream 


20% 


80% 


.008 


.64% 


.60% 


21% 


79% 


.008 


.63% 


.59% 


22% 


78% 


.008 


.62%, 


.58% 


23% 


77% 


.008 


.61% 


.56% 


24% 


76% 


.008 


.60% 


.55% 


25% 


75% 


.008 


.60% 


.54% 


26% 


74% 


.008 


.59% 


.53% 


27% 


73% 


.008 


.58%, 


.52%, 


28% 


73% 


.008 


.57% 


.51% 


29% 


71% 


.008 


.56%, 


.50% 


30% 


70% 


.008 


.56%, 


.49% 


31% 


69% 


.008 


.56% 


.48% 


32% 


68% 


.008 


.54% 


.47%, 


33% 


67% 


.008 


.53% 


.46% 


34% 


66%o 


.008 


.52% 


.45% 


35% 


65% 


.008 


.52% 


.45% 


36% 


64% 


.008 


.51% 


.45% 


37% 


63% 


.008 


.50% 


.45% 


38% 


62% 


.008 


.49% 


.45% 


39% 


61% 


.008 


.48% 


.45% 


40% 


60% 


.008 


.48% 


.45%, 



CEEAM EIPENING. 



81 



Prof. Spillman of Washington State, Expt. Sta., 
in bulletin No. 24 says : ' ' The acidity of cream when 
ready to churn is usually between .50 per cent and .70 
per cent. If the acidity be lower than .50 per cent 
the butter will lack flavor and there is liable to be 
a great loss of fat in the buttermilk. If above .70 
per cent the butter may have undesirable flavors." 

107. Diagrams showing the different degree of 
acidity to which cream having a high per cent of fat 
and cream having a low per cent of fat may be 
ripened. 



20% Fat 



Acidity .64% 
Serum 80% 



40% Fat 



Acidity .48% 
Serum 60% 



The above diagrams show to what acidity cream 
should be ripened and more fully explains the value 
of the preceding relative acidity table. Suppose both 
lots of cream were ripened to .50 per cent acidity; 
the cream containing 40 per cent fat would be ri- 
pened about right, while the cream containing 20 per 
cent fat would not have sufficient acidity. For the 
production of the finest and fullest flavored butter, 
cream should test about 25-30 per cent fat after the 
starter has been added. Butter made from cream 
testing above 33 per cent fat, very easily develops 
oily, greasy and slightly flat flavors. 

108. In visiting thousands of creameries in ten of 
the foremost dairy states in the United States, I 



82 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

have found that the average acidity to which whole 
milk cream was ripened was about .55 to .64 per cent 
and the acidity to which hand separator cream was 
ripened was about .50 to .55 per cent. This agrees 
with my own experience in practical creamery but- 
ter making. Over-ripening is the cause of much of 
the poor butter now on the market, and it should be 
guarded against. 

109. Ripening mixed sweet and sour cream. Bet- 
ter results can be obtained by ripening mixed cream 
faster than if it were all sweet. This can be accom- 
plished by adding a heavy starter^ — not by raising 
the ripening temperature in order to hasten the 
ripening process. Mixed sweet and sour cream easily 
develops coarse flavors and for this reason high 
ripening or over-ripening must be guarded against. 
Pasteurizing such cream lessens the danger of the 
development of coarse flavors and when it is pas- 
teurized the ripening process can be carried on in 
about the same way as, if it were all sweet cream. 
Mixed cream especially when tainted is very much 
improved by pasteurization and by frequent stirring 
during ripening. 

110. Using large or small starter in cream. When 
all other conditions are right the larger the per 
cent of starter added to cream the faster it will 
ripen. The ripening temperature must be lower 
than when a small starter is used and the cream 
must be cooled before it has reached the desired 
acidity in order to prevent its becoming over-ripe 
and to guard against acid flavors and coarse aroma 
in the butter. On the other hand the smaller the 



CEEAM EIPENING. 83 

per cent of starter added the higher must be the 
temperature of the cream and the slower will the 
ripening process be. The longer it takes to ripen 
cream the more danger there is of developing off fla- 
vors and producing butter which is flat, slightly bit- 
ter and coarse flavored. Adding a very heavy starter 
(over 40 per cent) to cream has a tendency to impart 
a starter flavor to the butter if the cream to which 
it is added is ripened at normal ripening tempera- 
tures and not cooled to a sufficiently low temperature 
after ripening. 

111. Ripening hand separator cream. Unpasteur- 
ized hand separator cream. Gathered or hand sep- 
arator cream must be handled differently after it 
has reached the factory than the whole milk cream 
is handled. It must be handled according to 
its quality — that is, according to the per cent of 
acid and the degree of abnormal fermentation it 
contains. There are several different methods of 
handling this cream in use at present. Some cream- 
erymen advise ripening and handling it in the same 
manner as whole milk cream, while others prefer 
an entirely different system. Some of the latter 
advocate not warming it to ripening temperatures. 
They advise cooling the cream to below ripening tem- 
perature when received and holding at this tempera- 
ture until it is ready to be churned. The reason for 
not ripening such cream at normal temperatures 
is that the average quality of hand separator cream 
has a high degree of acidity and contains a variety 
of abnormal fermentations at the time it is received 
at the factory. If it were heated to ripening tem- 
peratures the abnormal fermentations present in it 



84 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

woxild immediately increase and their development 
could not be checked nor controlled even by the use 
of a pure culture starter. Therefore it is much 
more desirable to add as much starter as the rich- 
ness of the cream will allow and keep the cream 
cold for three hours or more before churning. 

112. Ripening pasteurized sweet cream. Expe- 
rience has taught us that the ripening of either pas- 
teurized sweet hand separator cream or whole milk 
cream should be handled differently than sour raw 
cream, whether it is hand separator cream or whole 
milk cream. Pasteurized sweet hand separator cream 
should be ripened the same as sweet whole milk 
cream (Page 78). After cream is pasteurized it 
should be cooled at once to ripening temperature — 
between 64° F. and 72° F. according to the season of 
the year. The starter should then be added and the 
cream stirred frequently until about .50 per cent to 
.55 per cent acidity has developed. It should then 
be cooled at once to a temperature low enough to 
keep the lactic acid in the cream in perfect condition 
until churning time. 

113. A new method which has been tried with good 
results with reasonably rich cream is to add a 
very heavy starter (about 35 per cent or more), cool 
the cream immediately to 52° F. or lower and hold 
at that temperature for eight to fourteen hours be- 
fore churning. This method of adding a heavy start- 
er whenever the richness of the cream permits is 
gaining in favor in some of the best creameries. It 
not only seems to produce as fine butter as that made 
by the other system but it lessens the labor incident 
to cream ripening. 



CHAPTER VII. 
THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 



Experience shows that oily butter is obtained 
by too quick as well as too slow churning. 

W. Fleischmann 



INDEX TO CHAPTER VII. 



Par. No. Page. 

114. When butter is perfect in body 87 

115. Churnability of cream 87 

116. Cliurning temperatures 88 

117. Conditions affecting churning temperatures 88 

118. Test of cream affecting churning temperatures 89 

119. Quantity of cream in churn 89 

120. Age of cream 90 

121. Temperature of churning room 92 

122. Eange of temperatures 93 

123. Holding cream before churning 94 

124. Temperature and time 95 

125. Acidity of cream . 95 

126. Age of cream 95 

127. Loss in buttermilk due to rich cream 95 

128. Quantity of cream in churn 96 

129. Speed of churn 97 

130. Viscosity of cream 97 

131. What to do with a difficult churning , 98 

132. Danger of too long churning 98 



CHAPTER VII. 
The Churning of Cream. 

114. Whenever butter is found to be perfect in 
body and grain, it can be depended upon that the 
churning of the cream was properly performed. 
Improper methods in the process of churning are 
followed by faults in the body of the butter. The 
manner of churning, as well as the shape and size 
of the butter granules, affects the aroma and flavor 
of the butter. Conditions in cream which, during 
churning, interfere with the formation of perfect 
granules of butter, must necessarily affect the granu- 
lar structure and the grain of butter. The more de- 
fined and ragged the butter granules are, the greater 
is the volumn of aroma, and the more delicate is 
the flavor. 

115. Chumability of cream. In farm dairy prac- 
tice the churnability of cream is affected by more 
factors than is the churnability of cream in cream- 
eries. This may be due in part to the fact that 
cream churned on the farm is usually from one herd 
of cows while the cream that is churned in a cream- 
ery is from the milk of a number of different herds 
all put together in one vat and mixed before it is 
churned. By mixing the cream, the different batches 
of cream lose their individual characteristics and 
are made more uniform. The main factors which 
seem to affect the churnability of cream are tem- 
peratures and ripeness of cream and seasons of the 
year. 

87 



88 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

116. Clmming temperatures^ The temperature 
for churning which is indicated on dairy thermome- 
ters seems to be the result of a custom based per- 
haps on the practice prevailing in farm dairies 
years ago, of using this temperature for churning. 
The conditions and methods of handling cream may 
have been such a few decades ago as to warrant 
the churning of cream at or near 62° F. At present 
if one were to make a hard and fast rule for this 
(which by the way is impossible) a temperature 
of 56° F. would be more likely to be practicable in 
the average creamery. Since the introduction of 
modern dairy machinery and the increased circula- 
tion of dairy literature, dairying in general has un- 
dergone a complete change. In former times when 
cream was raised by the gravity system and then 
dipped off the milk, a comparatively large quantity 
of milk went in with the cream and consequently 
such cream had to be churned at a comparatively 
high temperature. Under such conditions 62° F. 
was probably the proper churning temperature. Why 
manufacturers of thermometers still continue to in- 
dicate churning temperature as being 62° F. is a 
mystery and it is undoubtedly misleading to the 
novice in dairying. 

117. The churning temperature of cream concerns 
every butter maker and the failure to properly ad- 
just the temperature according to the richness of 
the cream, quantity of cream in the churn, age of 
the cream, acidity of the cream, season of the year, 
room temperature and the length of time the cream 
has been held at a low temperature, etc., will not 



THE CHUBNING OF CREAM. 89 

give the best results. Even if the churning tempera- 
ture were not affected by so many different condi- 
tions it would not be safe to lay down a hard and fast 
rule regarding churning temperature. Conditions 
in creameries and the ability of the individual in 
charge of the handling of the cream play an im- 
portant part in determining what this temperature 
must be. 

118. The butter fat content of cream is the main 
factor in determining at what temperature cream 
shall be churned. When cream is very rich, testing 
perhaps 33 per cent butter fat, it must be churned at 
a low temperature in order that good results may be 
obtained. Such cream can be churned at a tempera- 
ture as low as 43° F. in summer. Very thin cream, 
testing perhaps 20 per cent must be churned at a 
rather high temperature, especially when the churn 
is full or overloaded. There is a great difference in 
the closeness of the fat globules in rich and in poor 
cream. Being very much closer in rich cream they 
come in closer contact when the cream is agitated 
and strike each other more frequently during the 
churning process than do the globules in thin cream. 
There is so much serum mixed with the thin cream 
that it is difficult for the fat globules to strike each 
other hard enough to cause them to adhere to each 
other and gather during the churning process. It 
is therefore evident that the churning temperature 
must be higher for thin cream than for cream which 
is rich In butter fat. 

119. The observant operator must have noticed 
It the time required for churning is influenced by 



90 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

the quantity of cream in the chum and that the 
condition of the butter granules at the end of churn- 
ing is influenced in the same way. For example, take 
a churn having a capacity of 1,500 pounds when a 
little over one haK full. This quantity of cream 
testing 30 per cent butter fat may churn exactly right 
at a temperature of 55° F., while if we reduce the 
quantity to 600 lbs. and maintain the same test and 
temperature it will churn too quickly and may cause 
a heavy loss in the buttermilk. Now, suppose we 
take 600 pounds of cream testing 22 per cent but- 
ter fat. We can churn this cream in the same churn 
very nicely at a temperature of 56° F., but if we 
had 1,500 pounds of this 22 per cent cream and 
churned at a temperature of 56 F., the chances are 
that it would take about two hours or more to churn 
it ; especially if the churning room were so cold that 
the temperature of the cream would not be raised 
during the churning process. These variations in 
temperatures in relation to the quantity of cream 
in the churn may be explained in the following 
manner: When the quantity of cream in the churn 
is small, a fat globule may strike or gather several 
other globules at every revolution of the churn ; but 
when the chum is too full of cream, one fat globule 
may strike or gather only one fat globule at each 
revolution, due to less violent agitation. Therefore, 
it can be easily seen that when the churn is full the 
temperature must be higher than when it is only 
one-half or one-fourth full. 

120. The age of the cream has quite a marked in- 
fluence on the churning temperature. As a rule, the 



THE CHURNING OF CREAM. 91 

older the cream, the more quickly it will churn. 
Fresh cream, ripened only a little and held cold only 
a short time before churning, seems to require a 
longer time for churning than older cream does. 
The fact that there is such a difference in the time 
required for the churning of old and fresh cream 
may explain why it is that when old and fresh cream 
are mixed and churned soon after mixing, the 
cream will not churn as exhaustively as it should. 
The older the cream, the lower can the temperature 
be, provided that it has not been held too long at a 
low temperature previous to churning. However, 
fresh cream can also be churned at a low tempera- 
ture and in fact must be so churned, if it is to churn 
exhaustively. The time required for churning will 
be longer than that required for older cream. The 
temperature at which cream has been held previous 
to churning has a decided influence on the tempera- 
ture at which it can be churned. When cream has 
been held for only a few hours at a low temperature 
it would not be well to churn it at a high tempera- 
ture. But if cream has been held at a low tempera- 
ture for a long time (twelve or fourteen hours) it 
may be warmed to a higher temperature and still 
churn well and produce firm-bodied butter; but if 
this same cream were to be churned at a tempera- 
ture three or four degrees lower than that at which 
it has been held, it would require hours to chum it. 
If cream is to be churned shortly after cooling — 
that is, three or four hours — the temperature must 
be very much lower than it would need to be if the 
same cream were to be held for eight, ten or twelve 



92 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

hours. It is well to remember that the longer 
cream has been held at a low temperature the higher 
can the churning temperature be; and the higher 
the temperature at which the cream has been held 
previous to churning, the lower it should be cooled 
for churning in order to produce firm-bodied butter. 

121. The temperature of the churning room has a 

decided influence on the temperature at which 
cream should be churned. When the churning room 
is cold, the cream may be put into the churn at a 
higher temperature than when the room is warm. 
But if the cream is a little high in temperature in 
relation to the test and quantity, and the room is 
somewhat warmer than the cream, the result from 
this churning will probably not be very satisfactory. 
The most exhaustive churnings can generally be ob- 
tained when the temperature of the churning room 
is as low, or lower, than that of the cream to be 
churned, provided that the temperature of the cream 
has been properly adjusted before putting it into 
the churn. In regulating the temperature of cream 
for churning, the season of the year must always 
be taken into consideration. In the spring the butter 
fat is likely to be of a softer nature than in the 
fall and winter. In fall and early winter the cream 
is likely to be more viscous and may require a little 
higher temperature than during the spring and 
summer months. The fat globules are somewhat 
firmer during the winter months than they are in 
spring and summer. This is probably due to some 
extent, to the kind of food eaten by the cows during 
this season. The advanced stage of lactation in 
cows has not such a marked infiuence on the churn- 



THE CHUENING OF CREAM. 



93 



ing temperature in creamery butter making as in 
farm dairying. 

The following table will serve to indicate the 
approximate temperature at which cream of differ- 
ent richness may safely be churned. As the seasons 
of the year have some influence on the temperature 
at which cream should be churned a division is made 
in the table for the different seasons. The tempera- 
tures must be regulated according to creamery condi- 
tions and different methods employed by creamery 
operators. 





Seasons of the 


Year. 






Spring 


Summer 


Autumn 


Winter 


Cream Tests 


Deg. rahr. 


Deg. Falir. 


Deg. Fahr. 


Deg. Fahr. 


30% 


48—53 


48—54 


50—55 


51—55 


28% 


50-54 


50—55 


52—56 


53—56 


26% 


52—55 


52-56 


53-57 


54-57 


24% 


53—57 


53—58 


54—57 


55—57 


22% 


55—58 


55—59 


56—60 


56—60 


20% 


56—59 


57—60 


58—60 


58—60 


18% 


58—60 


58—60 


58—62 


58—62 



122. Range of temperature at which oream of dif- 
ferent richness may be churned: 

These temperatures are influenced by various fac- 
tors previously explained. That cream can be 
churned as indicated in the table is due to the differ- 
ent conditions which may and do exist in different 
creameries. The temperature indicated is the tem- 
perature at which cream should be put into the churn 
and not the temperature at the end of churning. 
The object of the table is to show the variations in 
temperature and the lowest and highest temperature 
at which cream can be churned and still have the 
butter come in the condition which is desired by 
creamerymen. 



94 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

123. Holding cream before churning. It is gen- 
erally understood among creamerymen that cream- 
eries have individual characteristics as well as indi- 
viduals have and that we cannot lay down a hard and 
fast rule to be applied in every creamery. Cream in 
each creamery must be handled according to the 
conditions existing there, as well as according to 
the ability and individuality of the operator. While 
the method of holding the cream for three hours 
after it is separated from milk or is delivered and 
put into the vat is sufficient for good results at one 
creamery, the same method may result in a failure 
at another creamery. In one creamery the method 
of ripening cream at ordinary temperatures may give 
excellent results, while the same method in another 
creamery may give results exactly the reverse. The 
degree of acidity in cream must be varied in differ- 
ent creameries in order to produce the same results. 
In one creamery the cream may be ripened to .65 
per cent acidity and in another it may be ripened 
to .50 per cent or .55 per cent acidity and both pro- 
duce about the same results. At one creamery the 
cream may be held over night and churned in the 
morning with good results, while at another cream- 
ery it is necessary to churn the cream in three or 
four hours after it is put into the vat. At one 
creamery, cream of a certain test, acidity and age, 
can be churned very successfully at a temperature 
of 56° F. while cream of the same kind may have 
to be churned at 52° F. at another creamery if the 
same results are to be obtained. 



THE CHUENING OF CREAM. 95 

124. Temperature and time. The following are the 
main factors which influence the time used in churn- 
ing and they are arranged according to their relative 
influence : 

1. Temperature of cream. 

2. Richness of cream, 

3. Fullness of the churn. 

4. Time cream is held at a given temperature. 

5. Season of the year. 

6. Ripeness of the cream. 

7. Speed of churn. 

8. Diameter of churn. 

125. Acidity of cream. In a preceding chapter it 
has been pointed out that the lactic acid has a 
marked effect on the viscosity of cream. It seems to 
have a tendency to render the cream less viscous, or 
more liquid and thereby enables the fat globules to 
more readily unite in the churning process. 

126. Age of cream. Age also seems to have the 
effect of destroying the viscosity and producing a 
certain condition in the cream which makes it chum 
more readily than when it is fresh even at the same 
degree of acidity. Therefore it would seem that age 
has a similar effect on the viscosity of cream as lactic 
acid. 

127. From table on page 93, it will be noticed 
that the richer the cream, the lower must be the 
temperature for churning. Cream testing 35 per 
cent butter fat will as a rule churn in much less 
time than cream having only 22 per cent butter fat. 
The exhaustiveness of churning is also influenced 
to some extent by the richness of the cream. Very 



96 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

rich cream (33 to 36 per cent) when the churn is 
over half full will very readily adhere to the sides 
of the churn and will swing round as the churn re- 
volves. Such cream will lose more butter fat in the 
buttermilk than cream which is not so rich and which 
through the whole process of churning produces 
a regular drop. It can readily be seen that a regular 
and uniform drop of the cream in the churn would 
have a tendency toward uniting the fat globules uni- 
formly and the loss in butter fat would be relatively 
less. It seems that when a regular drop is not pro- 
duced, the globules that are more easily churnable 
unite into granules and leave the smaller ones to 
unite later in the churning process. If these globules 
fail to unite there would be great loss in the butter- 
milk. Sometimes when the cream is too rich, part of 
it will adhere to the inside fixtures of the churn 
and not readily drop off during churning and will 
not be churned nor gathered at all. This is a source 
of considerable loss in the buttermilk. 

128. Quantity of cream in the chum. The quantity 
of cream in the churn bears a definite relation to 
the time it will take to churn. As a rule the fuller 
the churn the longer it will take to chum. It is not 
advisable to fill the churn more than half full due to 
the fact that there is not sufficient space in the churn 
for the cream to drop or create the necessary con- 
cussion. Where the churn is too full and the cream 
very rich the churn may become nearly full during 
the churning process, due to the swelling of the 
cream. This will increase the time of churning and 
is likely to cause a heavy loss in the buttermilk. The 



THE CHUENING OP CEEAM. 97 

smaller the quantity in the churn the lower should 
the temperature be and the fuller the churn the 
higher should be the temperature. If one were to 
divide the cream in the vat into two quantities and 
take one part, equal to one-third of a chum full and 
the other part equal to two thirds of a churn full, 
and churn both at a temperature of 50° F. it will be 
noticed that the difference in churning time will 
be very marked and that the butter granules in the 
two churnings will be very different in size and 
shape. 

129. Speed of churn. The churn must not be speed- 
ed too high because it then has a tendency to carry 
the cream around with it and not produce a drop; 
but on the other hand if the churn goes too slowly 
the concussion would be so small that churning 
would be impossible. The churns as they are now 
put upon the market are as a rule well tested, and 
it is therefore safe to follow the directions given 
with them regarding the speed of the churn. In or- 
der to determine just what speed gives best results 
I may mention that it would be a good plan to care- 
fully increase or decrease the speed of the churn and 
watch results. The speed found to give most desira- 
ble results can then be adopted. 

130. Viscosity of cream. During the cold season 
when it is suspected that viscosity in the cream has 
been the cause of a difficult churning, the trouble 
can to some extent be avoided in subsequent churn- 
ings by adding a large per cent of starter and by 
carefully watching the process of ripening the cream. 
If the cream is ripened uniformly and to a sufficient 



98 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

degree of acidity, and the temperature of it adjusted 
according to the per cent of butter fat it contains 
there will be little trouble with difficult churning. 
In fact there is really no need of having any trouble 
in churning. 

131. When difficulty is experienced in churning it 
can nearly always be traced to neglect on the part 
of the operator to properly adjust one or more of 
the various conditions affecting the uniting of the 
fat globules during churning. However, in case one 
has a difficult churning to deal with, caused for 
instance by the cream having swelled to such an ex- 
tent that there is little chance of making a churning 
in a reasonable length of time, a good thing to do is 
to add a little salt — about one per cent — and let 
the churning proceed for about five or ten minutes. 
If no difference in the consistency of the cream is 
noticed at the end of this time, pour in about ten 
per cent of water having a temperature of 95° F. 
The water should be poured in quickly, distributing 
it as uniformly as possible, and the chum started at 
once in order not to allow the water to act on a small 
quantity of the cream and fat globules and soften 
enough of them to produce greasy butter. If this 
treatment does not produce the desired effect on the 
cream the next best thing to do is to draw off enough 
cream to allow a perfect drop of the cream remain- 
ing in the churn. 

132. Danger in too much churning. When the but- 
ter comes in granules like shot and churning is con- 
tinued for some time after that stage is reached, 
for the purpose of producing larger granules, there 



THE CHUENING OF CREAM. 99 

is danger of the friction of the granules producing 
salvy and greasy butter. When the butter conies 
in fine granules and it is difficult to churn the gran- 
ules to larger size it is well to stop the churning and 
draw off enough of the buttermilk to produce a 
greater density of butter fat. The granules of butter 
drawn off with the buttermilk can be caught on a 
fine sieve and returned to the churn. By drawing 
off part of the buttermilk the fat globules come closer 
together and will more readily unite into larger gran- 
ules when churning is continued. Cream which 
churns in this way does not produce the finest butter. 
Anything affecting the structure of butter granules 
is likely to produce a greasy surface and tends to 
destroy the fine aroma of the butter. When butter 
granules are fine, round and hard and churning is 
continued for some length of time without changing 
their shape or size, the surface of the granules is 
rubbed smooth by friction against each other. This 
breaks the grain and produces greasy butter. The 
body of the butter as already stated is greatly affect- 
ed by the granular structure of the butter granules 
at the end of churning. The ideal condition of the 
butter granules, is to have them come in ragged or 
irregular bodies. The more irregular they are the 
more perfect will be the body of the butter. The 
salvy and greasy condition so often noticed in but- 
ter on the market is due in a great measure to the 
care of the cream and the manner of churning and 
not entirely due, as some believe, to the methods of 
handling the butter after churning. 



100 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

Heavy losses of butter fat in the buttermilk may- 
be due to improper ripening of the cream, churning 
at too high temperatures, too quick churning, too 
long churning, churning mixed sour and sweet cream 
and in fact to anything which affects the ideal condi- 
tions of the churning process. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE HANDLING OF BUTTER 
AFTER CHURNING. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER VIII. 



Par. No. Page. 

133. Handling of butter after churning 103 

134. Washing butter 103 

135. The effect of over churning 104 

136. How to handle over churned butter 104 

137. Add water quickly 105 

138. Quantity of wash water to be used 105 

139. Working butter 106 

140. How to know when butter is worked enough 106 

141. Conditions affecting working of butter 106 

142. Packing butter 107 

143. Preparation of tubs and boxes for packing butter_ 107 

144. Printing butter for market 108 

145. Losses when butter is sold in bulk 108 

146. Preparing butter printers 108 

147. Condition of butter for moulding 109 

148 Wrapping butter 110 

149. Brand on wrapper 110 

150. Treating butter tubs or boxes for mould — First 

method 111 

Second method HI 

Third method HI 

151. Methods of applying parafifine 112 

152. Losses incurred between crreamery and market 113 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Handling of Butter After Churning. 

133. As has been stated in a previous chapter, the 
more ragged the butter granules (provided the 
cream is of good quality) the finer will be the flavor 
and the better will be the body of the butter. The 
finer the granules the more easily is the butter fat 
affected by temperatures of wash water and the man- 
ner of manipulation during washing. The larger 
the granules are when the butter comes the less 
quickly will temperatures affect their consistency. 
Large, soft granules and warm wash water are 
likely to result in mottled butter. Fine, firm gran- 
ules and cold wash water will usually produce dry 
butter. 

134. Washing butter. The temperature of the wash 
water may vary a few degrees in relation to the 
temperature of the buttermilk and still give good 
results. Fine butter granules when washed with cold 
water will more easily remain separate than larger 
granules will when washed with the same tempera- 
ture of wash water. Washing fine butter granules 
with cold water will chill and harden them and 
make the proper working of the butter difficult. It 
also prevents a perfect dissolving of the salt. We 
may take it for granted that the finer the granules 
the less time the butter should be subjected to the 
same temperature of wash water as is used on gran- 
ules which are much larger or coarser. The amount 

103 



104 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

of washing that butter should receive depends entire- 
ly upon the quality of the cream, the condition of the 
butter when churned and the method of washing 
used. 

135. When butter has come in lumps, that 
is, when it has been overchurned, the wash water 
ought not be very warm because using warm water 
on butter in this condition softens the outside of 
the lumps and encloses the buttermilk. This usually 
produces a milky brine in the butter. If quite cold 
wash water is used on large lumps it causes the out- 
side of the lumps to become firm and cold, thus 
favoring the production of mottles, unless the water 
is left long enough on the butter to produce a uni- 
form temperature throughout the entire mass. The 
quantity of wash water necessary, the temperature 
to be used and the amount of washing necessary for 
every churning of butter are problems which the 
butter maker must study out for himself. The finer 
the granules, the more quickly will the temperature 
of the wash water affect their consistency, and there- 
fore the wash water, whether warm or cold, must 
not be left on the butter long, either to harden or 
soften it. 

136. In case butter is overchurned the following 
procedure may assist the creamery operator in rid- 
ding the butter of undue quantities of buttermilk 
which is enclosed in the large lumps of butter. Add 
as much water as cream churned, revolve the churn 
a few times and draw off the water. Again add the 
same quantity of water and work butter one revolu- 
tion at a time, three or four times at intervals of 



HANDLING OF BUTTER AFTER CHURNING. 105 

five minutes. Draw off the water and drain; then 
salt and work as usual. Be sure to observe how the 
butter handles and if it is inclined to be soft (which 
may mean an excess of moisture) work in the salt 
at intervals, allowing the butter to stand a short 
time between workings. 

137. Wash water should be put into the churn as 
quickly as possible to avoid softening or hardening 
part of the butter. Even when the temperature of 
the wash water is the same as the temperature of the 
butter, the running in of the water and the washing 
and draining of the butter should be quickly done. 
Most of the fine flavor in butter is supposed to be 
volatile and it is therefore necessary that the butter 
should not be subjected to much washing nor allowed 
to stand in the wash water for any considerable 
length of time unless the butter contains bad flavors. 

138. Quantity of wash water to be used. The larg- 
er the quantity of wash water used the more readi- 
ly will the butter be freed of buttermilk, and the 
smaller the quantity of wash water used the less 
effect it has on removing the buttermilk. A small 
quantity of wash water with butter of average con- 
sistency has a tendency toward uniting the butter fat 
more readily into large lumps. This is conducive 
to holding moisture in butter. 

The amount of churning that is necessary in wash 
water depends first, upon the condition of the butter 
and the firmness of the granules, second, upon the 
temperature of the butter fat, third, upon the amount 
of water used, and fourth, upon the quality of the 
butter. 



106 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

139. Workingf butter. The American market pre- 
fers a smooth, waxy butter, with some salt, and this 
can only be obtained by working the butter properly 
with a sufficient amount of moisture and a proper 
amount of salt. The softer the butter the less it 
needs to be worked, and the firmer it is the more 
working it needs in order to give it a smooth body 
and to properly incorporate the salt. In working 
butter, be guided mainly by the appearance of it and 
not by the number of revolutions of the churn. 

140. How ta know when butter is worked enough. 
Take a chunk of butter from the churn ; cut it with 
a wire, a string or a ladle. Notice that the cut 
surface shows a close, smooth, even front. Then 
take it with two ladles, cut nearly in two and then 
pull. If the butter is worked enough it will adhere 
and draw a little before breaking ; but if not worked 
enough it will break off and show a loose open edge 
with drops of water of various sizes at the break. 
In case of leaky butter the edge wiU be rather ragged 
and open, due to pockets of water in the butter. As 
a general rule butter that is waxy, smooth and close 
in body is worked enough. 

141. When other conditions are right: 

1. Soft butter needs less working than hard but- 
ter. 

2. A small quantity more than a large quantity. 

3. Well churned butter less working than over- 
churned butter. 

4. Spring and summer butter less working than 
fall and winter butter. 

5. Butter from cream held over night more work- 



HANDLING OF BUTTEE AFTER CHUENING. 107 

tug than butter from cream churned two or three 
hours after cooling. 

6. The lower cream is cooled and the longer it 
is held at a low temperature the more the butter 
must be worked. 

142. Packing butter. Cleanliness in handling the 
butter when packing, and neatness of the package, 
play an important part in the success of a creamery. 
A neat package is a good advertisement for a cream- 
ery and is a true index to the character of the opera- 
tor. Butter should be packed immediately after it 
is worked enough to properly incorporate the salt 
and before it hardens or ''sets." If butter is packed 
after it has hardened, some of the moisture which 
has collected in small drops .is easily expressed; 
while if it is packed while soft less moisture is lost. 

143. When butter tubs are used place a small quan- 
tity of butter in each tub and pack it down well in 
order that the bottom of the tub will be perfectly 
filled. Then proceed to fill the tubs. When boxes 
are used the corners should be w^ell filled in order 
to exclude the air, and the top should be cut off 
smoothly. Boxes may be paraffined or parchment 
lined or both depending upon the demands of the 
commission house buying the butter. The top may 
be covered with a paper square and a little salt 
sprinkled on top. As a rule the top of the butter is 
cut off smoothly, even with the top of the tub. If 
a liner is used in the tub, turn the top of it, which 
usually extends one-half to one inch above the top of 
the tub, over onto the butter. Now place a cloth 
circle on top of the butter, sprinkle a layer of salt 



108 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

on it and on this place a parchment circle. The salt 
may be put on the butter either dry or wet, as 
directed by the dealer. 

144. Printing butter for market. The demand for 
block, printed, or moulded butter is increasing grad- 
ually from year to year. This is probably due to the 
fact that there is less loss connected with the hand- 
ling of it by the dealer than there is with jar or tub 
butter and the customer feels that he is getting a 
full pound and will have no loss by water leaking 
out as is the case where butter is bought in a jar. 

145. When butter is dished out from large packages 
losses may occur in several ways. There are slight 
losses in weighing ; a little water always leaks out of 
the butter when it is cut and a little butter always 
adheres toi the packages and utensils used in hand- 
ling it. When creameries market their butter in 
prints or blocks no shrinkage can be reported by 
commission houses, nor can the creamery man claim 
more butter than he actually markets. This is a 
very satisfactory way of marketing butter and 
should be encouraged, provided the market is will- 
ing to accept it. 

146. Preparing butter printers. When butter is 
moulded or printed direct from the churn the printer 
used must be in the best possible condition in order 
that it may deliver perfect prints. First soak the 
printer with boiling water applied either with a 
hose or dipper until the wood is soaked well, then 
apply cold water in the same way until the printer 
is as cold or colder than the butter. The trays used 
should be treated in the same way except that in- 



HANDLING OF BUTTEE AFTEE CHURNING. 109 

stead of applying the water with a hose or dipper 
they may be soaked in a tank. 

The printer should be as cold or colder than the 
butter because when the butter is colder than the 
printer, the outside of the butter is warmed and 
becomes sticky. This causes it to adhere to the 
printing machine. When the butter is warmer than 
the printer it hardens on the sides touching the ma- 
chine and in this way retains a perfect mould. Ma- 
chines used for printing butter, whether table print- 
ers or hand moulders, should not dry out much be- 
tween the times that they are used, as much drying 
of the wood causes warping and cracking and this 
makes a perfect mould impossible. When a printer 
has dried out much it requires the expenditure of 
considerable time to soak it sufficiently. 

147. Condition of butter for moulding. Butter used 
for moulding immediately from the churn should 
be neither hard nor soft, but just firm. When butter 
is a trifle soft place a piece of ice in the churn, close 
the cover and allow it to stand for one or one and 
one-half hours before moulding and it will then be 
in proper condition for making good prints. When 
butter is quite firm mould immediately after the 
working is finished. If butter hardens too much 
before printing losses are incurred through the ex- 
pelling of water during packing. 

When butter is moulded or printed directly from 
the chum it is necessary that great care be taken to 
have it of the proper firmness ; therefore, the temper- 
atures during churning and working must be care- 
fully adjusted. 



110 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

148. Wrapping butter. Whenever there is trouble 
with mould on butter it is advisable to soak the wrap- 
pers in salt brine before using. When paraffine 
paper is first used and a parchment wrapper put over 
this, the latter need not be soaked in brine. Condi- 
tions at creameries under which wrappers are kept 
would influence the treatment necessary for them. 
If they are kept in a clean, dry place there is little 
danger of their becoming infected with mould germs 
to the extent that special treatment would be neces- 
sary. They should be kept in a clean, dry, well 
ventilated place. 

149. Brand on wrapper. Unless a creamery is 
making enough butter to establish a trade or outlet 
of its own it is not advisable to carry one 's own brand 
on the wrapper. In order to establish a recognized 
market for one creamery, it is necessary for that 
creamery to manufacture practically all butter of one 
grade. This is impossible under average creamery 
conditions. There are very few creameries so situat- 
ed as to be able to sell even a small percentage of 
their butter under their own brand. Generally 
speaking it is not advisable to try to sell to commis- 
sion houses under your own brand, but it is better 
to sell your butter to them under their own brand. 
Selling butter under the brand of some butter house 
is advisable because such firms usually have outlets 
for butter of various grades and sell practically all 
butter by grade. Since these firms receive butter 
from a large number of creameries, which do not 
manufacture butter of one grade, it is necessary for 
them to grade all butter. 



HANDLING OF BUTTEE APTER CHURNING. Ill 

Treating Butter Tubs or Boxes for Mould. 

150. Frequently great losses to creameries have 
been incurred by the moulding of butter tubs and 
boxes shortly after the shipments of butter have 
reached the commission house. Instances are known 
where the mould grew on both the liner and the tub 
and penetrated into the outside parts of the butter. 
In order to avoid the loss and inconvenience occa- 
sioned by the development of mould, paraffining as 
a remedy was suggested and tried with very good 
results. There are several other simple and inex- 
pensive remedies which, when properly applied, 
give very good results. For instance the following: 

1. Tighten all hoops, scrub the tubs with a stiff 
brush and hot water, turn over a steam jet and heat 
quite hot. Now fill the tubs with clean well water 
and soak until the tub and cover weigh eleven 
pounds. When ready to pack the butter, sprinkle 
salt with a sieve all over the inside of the tub. Have 
the liners soaked in brine, line the tubs and again 
sprinkle salt all over the liner and bottom circle. 
The tub is now ready for packing the butter. 

2. Another method is that of soaking the tubs 
in a brine solution. Have a tank made of a size 
large enough to hold the number of tubs required 
for one day's make in the flush of the season and 
fill this tank with either a strong salt solution or a 
formaldehyde solution. Place the tubs in this tank 
and soak them until tub and cover together weigh 
eleven pounds. When tubs are treated in this way 
no salt need be sprinkled on either the tub or the 
liner, but liners and circles should always be soaked 



112 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

in brine for twelve hours before using as mould 
spores may adhere to them and grow after the butter 
is packed. 

3. Paraffine properly applied is one of the great- 
est safe guards against mould and is very easily 
done with modern paraffining apparatus. Consider- 
ing the benefits derived from its use as a means of 
preventing mould, the cost of it per package is a 
mere trifle. It excludes the air from the butter by 
sealing all crevices and in this way increases the 
keeping quality of the butter. It is claimed that 
losses in moisture are less in paraffined than in un- 
paraffined packages. If the soaking and handling 
of the packages were always performed in the best 
possible manner there would be less need of paraffin- 
ing, but since this is not realized in the average 
creamery it is recommended that paraffining be gen- 
erally employed as a safe guard against mould. 

151. Methods of applying paraffine. The quickest 
as well as the most reliable and economical method 
of applying paraffine is with apparatus especially 
devised for this purpose. The cost of paraffining 
need not be more than one cent per 60 pound pack- 
age of butter, whether it is a tub or a box. One 
ounce of paraffine will thinly coat one 60 pound tub 
and two ounces will give it a heavy coat. The cost 
would depend somewhat upon the smoothness of the 
package and the manner of applying the paraffine. 
One of the main factors influencing the cost of par- 
affining is the temperature of the paraffine when ap- 
plied. The hotter it is the less it will require. Sixty 
pound butter tubs which have a standard tare of 



HANDLING OF BUTTEE AFTEE CHUENING. 113 

eleven pounds each, including cover, should always 
be soaked until the tub and cover weigh eleven 
pounds and then paraffined as usual. In this way 
the creamery does not sustain any losses which are 
due to the difference between the tare (11 pounds) 
and the actual weight of the tub and cover. 

152. Average shrinkage of butter. In addition to 
information gathered from thousands of creameries 
by personal visits, a large number of inquiries were 
made by letter in regard to the average shrinkage 
allowance or loss between churn weight and market 
return weight. It was found to be li/4 per cent of 
the total butter churned. This is the average loss, 
as the shrinkage given ranged from nothing to 4 
per cent. Some claim that paraffining does not pre- 
vent this loss, as a certain shrinkage must be allowed 
in order that the dealer does not lose by shortage 
in weight. 

For further information regarding how losses af- 
fect the overrun, see Book II., Dairy Arithmetic. 



CHAPTER IX. 

CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN 
BUTTER. 



In the consistency of the butterfat lies 
the secret of controUing moisture in butter. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER IX. 



Par. No. Page. 

153. Education necessary 116 

154. Progress evident 116 

155. Fundamental principles must be studied 117 

156. Moisture can be controlled 117 

Table V, Uniform moisture in finished butter. 

157. Analysis of results, Table V 118 

158. Table VI, apparently same methods as in Table V 120 

159. Explanation of Table VI 120 

160. Not always the same results 121 

Table VII, a study of six churnings. 

161. Table VTII, shrinkage in moisture 122 

162. Explanation of Tables VII and VIII 122 

163. How the chum moisture test was made 124 

164. A churning showing certain methods and effect 125 

With explanatory Table IX. 

165. Description of methods employed 125 

166. Causes affecting moisture control 126 

(a) How not to exceed the legal per cent of moist- 
lu-e. 

(b) Suggestions regarding expelling moisture. 

167. Variations in moisture at different stages 127 

Table X. Methods used. 

168. Per cent of moisture and firmness of butter 128 

Table XI. Eesults of ten churnings. 

169. Per cent of moisture in different parts of churn 130 

Table XII. Eesult of moisture tests 130 

170. How to take a composite sample of butter for moist- 

ure i::i 

171. Samples taken from tubs 1.31 

172. An exreptioual case 182 

173. Factors most necessary for controlling moisture 132 



CHAPTER IX. 

CONTKOLLING MoiSTURE IN BUTTER. 

153. The desired or required per cent of moisture 
in butter is very easily controlled when the funda- 
mental principles involved in the retention, expul- 
sion, and incorporation of moisture are understood 
by the creameryman. 

Butter can be manufactured with fairly uniform 
moisture content, provided proper facilities for 
handling the various processes are available. The 
butter maker should so educate himself as to be 
able to meet unusual conditions as they arise. He 
should acquaint himself with all methods which affect 
the variations of the composition of butter, especially 
with regard to increasing, retaining and expelling 
moisture. 

154. Some undesirable methods employed in the 
handling of cream and in the manufacture of butter 
have been, to a great extent, eliminated in the last 
few years by the enactment of suitable laws affecting 
these methods. A great advancement toward the em- 
ployment of better and more uniform methods in the 
handling of cream and the manufacture of butter 
is already manifest. 

The maximum per cent of moisture allowed in 
butter is 15.9 per cent, and this is fixed by federal 
law. This has created a tendency toward the manu- 
facture of butter of a more uniform composition, 
which is very desirable, from an economic point of 
view. 

116 



CONTEOLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. Il7 

155. The great difference in the construction of 

machinery used in the handling of cream and in 
the manufacture of butter as well as the different 
methods employed in different creameries is bound 
to produce butter which varies greatly in the per 
cent of moisture it contains. The following facts are 
intended to assist the manufacturer of butter to a 
better understanding of the fundamental principles 
involved in the control of moisture. 

In order to avoid trouble we ought to know what 
methods are likely to get us into trouble. Realizing 
the danger of the application of wrong methods as 
well as the danger of the wrong application of 
proper methods in the manufacture of butter it be- 
comes necessary to discuss various methods bearing 
on the control of moisture in the manufacture of 
butter. 

156. Moisture can be controlled. By a close appli- 
cation of the principles affecting the retention and 
expulsion of moisture it is possible to control mois- 
ture in butter uniformly and satisfactorily from day 
to day. This can be done without employing any of 
the so-calkd ^'abnormal methods" in the manufac- 
ture of butter. 

157. Uniform moisture in finished butter when 
cream varies in quantity and richness. 

The results in the following table indicate that the 
richness and quantity of cream used have apparently 
no effect on the moisture content of the finished 
butter. By studying carefully the methods used and 
applying the same at the proper time during the 



118 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

manufacture of butter, conditions affecting the mois- 
ture content can be controlled and the desired per 
cent of moisture can be retained in the butter. That 
the results in Table V., page 119, were so uniform is 
due to carefully watching details connected with 
the various operations during the whole process. 
For instance, compare churning No. 1 with churning 
No. 6. In No. 1 the quantity of cream is much less 
than in No. 6; the cream test is low in No. 1 and 
high in No. 6; the temperature of the wash water 
used is lower in No. 1 than in No. 6. The foregoing 
factors are in favor of higher moisture in No. 6. To 
offset this. No. 1 had a higher cream temperature 
and received twenty revolutions in washing against 
six revolutions in No. 6, which had a lower cream 
temperature. Since the temperature of the wash 
water was lower in No. 1 than in No. 6, No. 1 was 
churned more in a larger quantity of wash water 
than No. 6. By drawing off the water sooner in 
No. 6, it did not have time to affect the temperature 
of the butter granules much even though the water 
was warmer. Churning No. 6 was drained quite dry 
while in No. 1 more water was left in the churn at 
the time the salt was added and the butter worked. 
By carefully studying these two churnings it wiU be 
noticed that where one factor favored high moisture 
another factor favored low moisture. In the uni- 
form and relative adjustment of those factors lies 
the secret of properly handling churning processes 
from day to day. Study churning No. 3, Factors 
conducive to high moisture are : High cream test and 
fairly high churning temperature. Factors con- 



CONTEOLLING MOISTUEE IN BUTTEE. 



119 



ducive to low moisture content are : Washing butter 
in slow gear, fifteen revolutions (which has a ten- 
dency toward making the granules firm), draining 
butter quite dry, and using low temperature wash 
water. 

Not only is such balancing of methods necessary 
in order to get uniform results, but one must also 
be able to judge by the condition of the butter fat 
during the various stages, how long or how short 
each period of handling must be. The operator must 
also study conditions as they arise in order to know 
the quantity and temperature of water to be used 
with such changed conditions. 

TABLE V. 

Uniform Moisture in Finished Butter When Cream Varies 

in Quantity and Richness, 



No. of Ohurnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Cream Pounds 


962 


1351 


1424 


1324 


1409 


1180 






Cream Tests (averages)... 


23.4 


30.15 


28.56 


23.4 


23. 


31.8 


Cream Temperatures °F.. 


56 


54 


56 


54 


58 


54 


Buttermilk " °r. . 


58 


57 


57 


57 


58 


56 


Wash Water " °r. . 


54 


55 


54 


54 


54 


67 


Slow Gear in Wash Water 








15 


















Rev. Churned in Wash 
Water 


20 


40 


30 


15 


30 


6 






Quantity of Butter to 
Water 


1^ 


1-3 


1—3 


1—4 




1—3 






Rev. Incorporating Salt.. 


13 


13 


13 


13 


13 


12 


Temperature of Butter °¥ 


56 


56 


56 


56 


57 


56 


Moisture Averages % 


15.— 


15.80 


15.00 


15.00 


15.00 


15.17 



120 



MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 



158. Apparently applying the same methods as 
those used in table No. V. 

TABLE VI. 

Apparently Applying the Same Methods as Those Used in 
TaUe No. F. 



Temperatures all in 


Fahrenheit Degrees 






No. of Churnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Cream pounds 


460 


1000 


1296 


1189 


800 


1344 


1150 


1000 


1747 


Cream tests % fat 


27 


36 


29y2 


25 


32 


28.2 


30 


35 


23 


Cream temperature 


55° 


52° 


56° 


53° 


54° 


55° 


52° 


46° 


52° 


Buttermilk temper- 
ture 


58° 


54° 


58° 


57° 


55° 


56° 


54° 


56° 


55° 






Wash water tem- 
perature 


55° 


56° 


56° 


52° 


56° 


53° 


52» 


53° 


55° 


Quantity of butter 
to water 


1-3 


1—3 


1-3 


1-3 


1-2 


1—2 




1-2 


1-2 


Rev. churned in 
water _ 


80 


60 


24 


30 


6 


15 


20 


30 


10 






Rev. worked in 
water 




10 




9 


10 


12 


6 


10 










Temperature of 
finished butter.. 


58° 


56° 


59° 


56° 


56° 


54° 


52° 


54° 


56° 


Average percent of 
moisture 


18.33 


18.10 


18.75 


17.50 


17.1 


17.12 


17. 


16.53 


17.25 


Condition of but- 
ter 


Dull 
and 
weak 
body 


Dull 
and 
weak 
body 


Soft 

in 

body 


Very 

dry 

body 


Fair 
body 


Fair 
body 


Very 

dry 

body 










S— Simplex. V— 
Victor 


S. 


S. 


V. 


V. 


V. 


S. 


S. 


V. 


V. 



159. The per cent of moisture in the finished butter 
is very much greater as shown in the above table 
than given in table No. V. The methods in table 
No. VI. do not vary much from those used in table 
No. V. The difference in results indicated in table 
VI. is v^holly due to the proper (table No. V.), or 



CONTROLLING MOISTUEE IN BUTTER. 121 

improper (table No. VI.) application of methods 
used. The body of butter is usually weak whenever 
the moisture exceeds 16% or 17 per cent and is de- 
cidedly soft when it exceeds 19 per cent. 

No rule which is applicable to all conditions alike, 
can be formulated because conditions under which 
butter is made, vary very much. Not only are 
the results obtained affected by a variation of 
conditions under which butter is made, but different 
butter makers judge conditions differently. Due to 
this, no rule can be formulated which could be used 
under all conditions. However, by having a perfect 
system of cream standardization, by knowing the 
exact quantity of cream used at each churning and 
by a careful adjustment of temperatures, very good 
results can be obtained by following a definitely out- 
lined method. 

160. Not alway the same results. In order to de- 
termine how much the per cent of moisture would 
vary by employing the same methods, six chumings 
were made from the same lot of cream. These 
churnings were all made in the same churn and with- 
in ten hours time. In the table below will be found 
the result of these churnings: 

Six chnrning's made from the same lot of cream. 

After the butter had stood for four days in a 
freezer, it was retested for moisture and the samples 
were taken with an ordinary butter trier. The re- 
sults obtained are given below. 



122 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

TABLE VII. 

Six Churnings Made From, the Same Lot of Cream. 



No. of Churnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Cream Pounds 


301 


301 


300 


300 


300 


800 






Per Cent Butter Pat ... 


24. 


23.9 


24. 


24.3 


24. 


24.2 


Time Churned (in minutes) 


31 


29. 


30 


27 


27 


30 


Temperature of Butter- 
milk 


57° 


56° 


57° 


57° 


57° 


57° 






Temperature o f Wash 
Water 


52° 


52° 


53° 


53° 


53° 


53° 






Rev. Churned in Water.. . . 


15 


15 


15 


15 


15 


15 


Rev. Worked in Water 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


Temperature of Butter... 


56° 


55° 


56° 


56° 


56° 


56° 


Churn Moisture Test %... 


13.50 


13.50 


12.90 


13.10 


14.25 


13.00 



161. Shrinkage in moisture. 



TABLE VIII. 

Shrinkage in Moisture. 



No. of Churnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


After Four Days. 
Tested from Tub. Mois- 
ture 


12.70 


12.78 


12.72 


13.20 


13.75 


12.50 






Shrinkage 


.80 


.72 


.18 


Gain 
.10 


.50 


50 







162. The average shrinkage in five out of six tubs 
is .54 per cent per tub. The greatest variation in 
moisture in this lot is 1.35 per cent. The quantity 



CONTEOLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 123 

of wash water used in each churning was one-half 
the volume of the cream churned. The butter was 
first rinsed with water of the same temperature as 
the water used for washing. In order to ascertain 
what effect these quantities of wash water at the 
temperatures mentioned had on the moisture con- 
tent and on the quality of the butter, the butter 
was worked ten revolutions in the water, in slow 
gear. It can readily be seen that under such condi- 
tions and temperatures the moisture content was not 
high. As far as could be detected these churnings 
had the same firmness of body and handled about 
the same during the manufacturing process. The 
foregoing trial would indicate that the moisture in 
butter will vary somewhat, even though the butter 
is made under the same conditions. 

During a period of four days, between the churn 
test and the tub test, the average moisture shrinkage 
was .54 per cent. For some reason one tub did not 
show any shrinkage, one showed .18 per cent and 
four showed above .50 per cent shrinkage. The 
cause of the high shrinkage on this butter may be 
due in part to loss of moisture during the packing 
of the butter and to sampling it from the tub with a 
trier when quite cold, thus losing a little water by 
drawing the plug. It is claimed by some creamery- 
men that the chum moisture test can be 17 per cent 
and the butter will not contain more than 16 per 
cent of moisture when it reaches the market. I wish 
to caution butter makers against putting faith in 
such claims because well made butter does not al- 
ways lose one per cent of moisture from the time it 



124 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

is churned, packed and held at the creamery until 
it reaches the market. 

163. How the chum moisture test was made. After 
the working of the butter was finished, a three- 
pound compact chunk was taken from the churn. 
The sides were cut off until one pound was left, 
and from this piece a cube weighing about ten or 
fifteen grams was cut and placed in a Patrick alum- 
inum breaker or in a Wisconsin high pressure oven 
pan, and heated until all moisture was expelled. By 
using this method the duplicate samples compared 
well, and seemed to prove the method an accurate 
one and one which can well be used in creamery 
practice for approximate results. A Disbrow churn 
was used for these churnings. The sampling and re- 
testing of the tub butter was done in the same man- 
ner, except that a trier was used, and several plugs 
taken from each tub. From each plug a few grams 
were taken (enough to make 10 or 15 grams), placed 
in the pan or cup, and heated until all the moisture 
was expelled. Both these methods compared well 
with standard methods. 

The character of butter has much influence on the 
results obtained and must always be taken into con- 
sideration when comparing the results obtained and 
checking up work done. A common cause of poor 
and variable results in testing butter for moisture 
is the use of improper methods, either in taking 
samples from the churn or from the tub, and in not 
weighing the sample correctly before and after test- 
ing. In order to get a representative sample from 
the churn, larger quantities of butter than one or 



CONTROLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTER. 



125 



two ounces must be taken, from which to make the 
moisture determination. Let me warn butter mak- 
ers against taking a little bit of butter from one 
place in the churn, with a jackknife, ladle or the 
fingers, for testing for moisture. Such a small piece 
of butter taken at random does not, as a rule, repre- 
sent the average moisture in a churning. 

164. Eight churnings showing certain methods and 
their effect on moisture. 



TABLE IX. 



No. of Churnlngs 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Cream pounds 


1500 


1848 


1747 


1150 


1887 


1280 


1445 


1150 


Cream tests % 


32. 


36.5 


23. 


30. 


25.6 


30.6 


27. 


30. 


Cream temperature ° F . 


54° 


54° 


52° 

55° 


52° 
54° 


54° 
56° 


55° 

57° 


55° 
56° 


52° 






Buttermilk temperature 'F 


55° 


56° 


55° 


Wash water temperature ° P 


56° 


52° 


55° 


52° 


52° 


57° 


52° 


53° 


Eev. churned in wash water 


6 


10 


10 


20 


25 


56 


25 


30 




10 


7 


8 


6 


3 


30 


5 








Rev. worked incorporating salt — 


12 


12 


12 


13 


14 


14 


12 


13 


Temperature of butter ° F 


56° 


52° 


56° 


52° 


54° 


53° 


53° 


54° 






Per cent moisture (averages) 


16.6 


17.65 


17.25 


17. 


15.93 


16.45 


17. 


17. 


No. of moisture determinations— 


13 


3 


2 


2 


4 


5 


4 


3 



tVictor churn was used. 

165. Whether such methods as are given in the 
above table can or cannot be employed to advantage 
in creamery butter making is a question that can be 
decided only by the butter maker himself. Results 
obtained would depend absolutely upon his ability 
to handle properly all processes involved in churn- 
ing the cream and working the butter. In order to 
understand any one method that may be employed 



126 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

in creamery butter making, all sides must be well 
studied and we must see into and understand what 
conditions affect an increase or a decrease of mois- 
ture in butter. 

In every one of the churnings in table IX., except 
No. 8, the butter was worked in water after being 
washed. The quantity of water used in the first five 
churnings was twice the amount of the butter 
churned. In numbers 6, 7 and 8, the quantity of 
water used was three times the amount of the butter 
churned. Working the butter in water has a ten- 
dency to increase the moisture unless the butter is 
quite firm. The rate at which moisture in butter is 
increased by working the butter in water depends 
more upon the condition of the butter fat than upon 
the number of revolutions given in water. The solid- 
ity of the butter fat determines the rate of increase 
or decrease of moisture in butter during the wash- 
ing and working processes. Under proper condi- 
tions butter may be worked a little in water with- 
out necessarily spoiling those qualities which enter 
into the makeup of perfect butter. 

166. Retaining and increasing moisture in butter. 
Moisture may be increased and retained in the fol- 
lowing ways: 

I. By churning cream at a high temperature. 

II. By overchurning. 

III. By churning very rich cream. 

IV. By washing with warm water and churning 
the butter into lumps in the wash water. 

V. By working butter in water and leaving water 
in the churn while incorporating salt. 



CONTEOLLING MOISTURE IN BUTTEE. 127 

VI. By overworking butter in water, 

VII. By churning cream very soon or at once 
after cooling. 

Expelling Moisture. 

A. How not to exceed the legal moisture limit. 

Chum cream at low temperatures. Churn butter 
to fine granules. Wash butter with cold water. Hold 
butter in cold water for some time in order that 
butter granules may become firm. Drain butter 
dry before adding salt and working butter. "Wash 
butter at intervals, giving a few workings at a time. 
Maintain firm butter fat during the whole process of 
butter manufacture, and low moisture is the result. 

B. A few suggestions regarding expelling moisture. 
This can be accomplished by letting the butter stand 
in the churn until it has set, then start the churn, 
set the workers in motion, and work as usual until 
the moisture is sufficiently reduced. If the churning 
room is so warm that the butter cannot harden or 
become firm in the churn, put the butter into soaked, 
unlined tubs and place in cooler until set. Then 
work as stated above. Hardening butter fat is the 
only means of expelling moisture and is also the 
most effective way of preventiag too high moisture 
content. 

167. Variations in moisture at different stages dur- 
ing the churning and working processes. 

It is interesting to note how the moisture con- 
tent changes during different stages of the manufac- 
turing process. In the experiments noted in the 
foregoing table, the wash water was tempered to 



128 



MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 



54° and 55° F., and the temperature of the cream 
was about 52° F. when put into the churn. This 
table seems to indicate that cold water has a ten- 



TABLE X. 



No. of Chumings 



Butter Granules Mustard Seed Size 



12 3 

Per cent of Moisture 



17.95% 



17 % 



16 % 



Butter Granules Bice Size. 



16.40% 



15.50% 



15.77% 



After Washing 36 Revolutions. 



14.95% 



13.90% 



13.95% 



Finished Butter 



tl6.75% 



15.30% 



15.30% 



tAll average of six determinations. 




Per cent of Moisture 


Butter Granules Rice Size 


14.20% 












After Washing 10 Revolutions 


14.65% 










After Washing 20 Revolutions 


13.40% 










After Washing 30 Revolutions 


13.50% 










Working 6 Revolutions in Water. . . 


14.50% 










Working 6 Rev. Incorporating Salt. 


15.78% 











dency to lower the moisture content of butter dur- 
ing washing under certain conditions, but the mois- 
ture can be increased by allowing a little water to 
remain in the churn during the incorporation of the 
salt. 

168. Per cent of moisture and the firmness of 
butter. 

The cream used in the above churnings was of 
such a temperature as to insure exhaustive churn- 



CONTEOLLING MOISTUEE IN BUTTER 



129 



ing. The wash water used ranged from 51° to 54° 
F. After the butter had been washed it was salted, 
and the working finished immediately without any 
stop except about five minutes which was necessary 

TABLE XI. 



No. of Churnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 

Me- 
dium 


10 


Consistency of but- 
ter 






Soft 


Hard 


Very 
hard 


Not 
very 
soft 


Soft 


Soft 


Soft 






Per cent of moisture 
after washing 


14.75 


13.90 


14.60 


15.15 


16. 


14.75 


13.75 


14.66 


14.50 


14.95 


Change in moisture 
during the incor- 
poration of the 
salt 


16.— 


15.30 


16.50 


14.45 


13.50 


14.36 


16.25 


15.10 


15.30 


16,75 






Increase -1- De- 
crease — 


+ 
1.35 


+ 
1.40 


+ 
1.90 


.70 


2.50 


.39 


+ 
2.50 


+ 
.44 


+ 
.80 


i+so 



in order to obtain a fair sample of butter to be used 
for moisture determinations. About ten or fifteen 
pounds of water was left in the churn in all of 
the above churnings to facilitate the dissolving of the 
salt and to increase the moisture content of the but- 
ter. The finished butter was all in a fine, waxy condi- 
tion, not slushy, salvy nor gritty. By carefully watch- 
ing conditions, the moisture in butter can be in- 
creased as much as 2.35 per cent during the incor- 
poration of the salt. In all of the above churnings, 
the butter was worked only enough to properly in- 
corporate the salt and avoid mottles. The results 
shown in table XI. seem to indicate that the moisture 
in butter is retained, increased or expelled according 
to the firmness of the butter fat. This is noticeable 
in churnings 4, 5, and 9. 



130 



MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 



169. Per cent of moisture in different parts of 
chum. Result of moisture tests. 

TABLE XII. 

Result of Moisture Tests. 



No. of Ohurnings 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Average 


Moisture % gear end 


15.30 


15.2 


16.25 


14.14 


14.90 


16.90 


15.75 


15.45 


15.47 


Moisture % middle 


15.50 


16.1 


15. 


16.35 


14.88 


16.40 


16.35 


15.06 


15.38 


Moisture % drain end 


17.00 


16.00 


14.6 


16.75 


17.00 


15.50 


16.75 


15.50 


16.19 



Since the churns in most creameries are set in- 
clined toward the drain end, the water collects at 
that end of the churn during working of the butter, 
therefore a great difference in the per cent of mois- 
ture in the different parts of the churn is noticeable. 
In fact, there is so much difference that, in order 
to obtain an average moisture determination, a com- 
posite sample composed of samples taken from dif- 
ferent parts of the butter in the churn is necessary, 
and from this sample the moisture determination 
must be made. This difference in moisture in differ- 
ent parts of the churn is found to be greater in 
chums in which the butter is worked into one long 
column. The middle part of the column has the least 
moisture, the butter at the gear end has slightly- 
more, and that at the drain end, the highest moisture. 
The greater the incline of the churn, the greater the 
moisture at the lower end. This variation in the per 
cent of moisture, is partly, if not wholly, due to the 
division of water in the churn during the time thai 
the butter is worked. Through the spreading of the 
workers while working, the butter passes more quick- 
ly through the middle of the rollers and strikes the 



CONTEOLLING MOISTUEE IN BUTTER. 131 

sides of the churn before the ends of the column 
strike it. This divides the water in the churn and 
forces it to the ends, which causes the butter to be 
drier in the middle of the churn than at either end. 
This can be overcome, to some extent, by setting the 
churn level and handling the churning in such a 
way as to produce butter of a rather soft consist- 
ency. 

170. How to take a composite sample of butter 
for moisture determination. Take a spatula, a com- 
mon broad knife, or a cheese or butter trier, and a 
common cup or beaker, and take about one-fourth 
of an ounce of butter from different parts of the 
churn, until two or three ounces have been obtained. 
Place the samples in the cup or beaker and set the 
latter into a water bath having a temperature of 
about 98° F. Stir constantly until you have a 
smooth, soft paste. This now constitutes your com- 
posite sample and is to be used for moisture deter- 
mination. From it take 10, 15 or 25 grams, or any 
desired quantity. Weigh it accurately and place in 
a cup or drying pan and follow the directions on 
whatever moisture testing apparatus is used. 

171. Samples taken from tubs. It is well to take 
a very small quantity of butter from each tub while 
it is still soft and fresh from the churn, to form the 
composite sample to be used for testing the moisture 
content. Prepare this sample as previously stated 
and test as usual. The test made from the composite 
tub sample will, as a rule, show a truer average, and 
when this is compared with the test made from the 
chum composite sample and does not check up quite 



132 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

closely, another test can at once be made and the 
error located. 

172. An exceptional case. A special churning was 
made to determine what the results would be when 
special precautions were taken in ripening the cream, 
in churning, and in washing and working the but- 
ter. To the surprise of those who examined the 
butter when a week old, it was found that it con- 
tained 18 per cent of moisture and scored 96% 
points. This score was the average of the scores 
of three judges. Upon critical examination it was 
found that the body of the butter gave way more 
easily under the trier, than butter having a lower 
moisture content. It must be remembered that this 
was an exceptional case, and that butter with 18 
per cent of moisture, as ordinarily made, would be 
quite different. H. L. Puxley, in Modern Dairy 
Farming, Chapter XI., p. 107, 1906, says: ''Even 
good butter contains a large percentage of water, 
but this should never be more than 15 per cent." 

I wish to emphasize the fact that it is not so much 
in the increase of one or two per cent of moisture, 
that the main danger of producing poor butter lies. 
It is the quality of the raw material which is usu- 
ally at the bottom of most of our trouble with butter 
faults. 

173. Factors most necessary for controlling mois- 
ture. Even though there are a great many condi- 
tions which affect the per cent of moisture in but- 
ter, there is no one factor which affects the moisture 
to a greater extent than a properly educated man at 
the chum. Next in importance, are the temperatures 



GONTEOLLING MOISTUEE IN BUTTER. 133 

applied and the methods used. The kind of ma- 
chinery used also plays an important part in affect- 
ing the methods used in regulating the moisture con- 
tent of butter. Such conditions as the season of the 
year, the sort of feed the cows are fed, and the rich- 
ness, age, and acidity of the cream, are of minor im- 
portance and the effect of these conditions on the 
moisture content of butter can very easily be over- 
come by the operator with good judgment. 



CHAPTER X. 
BUTTER FAULTS. 



Cream laden with miscellaneous germs has 
bad keeping qualities, and often a faulty taste 
or odor. Most of the so-called faults of butter 
arise, not from improper feeding of cows or 
from improper milking or handling of butter, 
but from undesirable germs which infest it. 

Kenelm Winslow. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER X. 



Par. No. Page. 

Part I. Butter Faults as Affected by Conditions on 
Dairy Farms. 

174. Classification of butter faults 136 

175. Quality of butter affected by farm conditions 136 

176. How to avoid barny taints 137 

177. Care of tainted cream at creamery 137 

178. Source of eowy odor 138 

179. Cause of musty flavor in milk or cream 138 

180. Cause of sweetish flavor in milk or cream 139 

181. What may be done to improve cream having a 

sweetish flavor 140 

182. Some causes of burnt flavors 140 

183. Sources of high acid in cream 141 

184. Bitter flavors 142 

185. Care of milk and cream to avoid salvy butter 142 

Part II. Butter Faults Due to Improper Handling of 

Cream at the Creamery 143 

186. Eegarding burnt flavors in butter 143 

187. Burnt flavor due to starter, how prevented 144 

188. Cause and prevention of acid flavors 145 

189. Cause and prevention of coarse flavors 146 

190. Cause and prevention of unclean flavors 147 

191. Cause and prevention of curdy flavors 147 

192. Cause and prevention of specks in butter 148 

Part III. Butter Faults Due to Faulty Workmanship 149 

193. Cause and prevention of leaky and slushy butter 149 

194. Cause and prevention of gritty butter 151 

195. Cause and prevention of mottled butter 151 

196. Cause and prevention of salvy and greasy butter 152 

(a) Pasteurization of cream 153 

(b) Churning of cream 153 

(c) Washing of butter 154 

(d) Working of butter 155 

197. Cause and prevention of oily butter 155 

198. Cause and prevention of woody flavor in butter 157 

199. Cause and prevention of lardy or tallowy butter 157 

200. Cause and prevention of fishy flavor in butter 157 

201. Cause and prevention of brittle butter 158 

202. Cause and prevention of unclean flavor in butter 159 

203. Cause and prevention of coarse flavor in butter 159 



CHAPTER X. 

Butter Faults. 

174. Butter faults may be divided into three main 
classes or divisions : I. Faults due to improper hand- 
ling of milk or cream before it is delivered at the 
factory. II. Faults due to improper handling of the 
cream at the factory before churning. III. Faults 
arising from improper butter manufacturing proc- 
esses. 

PART I. 

175. Butter faults as affected by conditions on 
dairy farms. The dairyman plays an important part 
in the success or failure of the local creamery. It 
is in a great measure in his power to make the pro- 
duction of fine butter possible. By neglecting to per- 
form, in a proper manner, the detail part of the work 
(Hunziker^) pertaining to the production of clean 
milk (Winslow^) he throws a heavy burden of re- 
sponsibility upon the shoulders of the creamery op- 
erator. 

The insanitary conditions which still exist on some 
dairy farms are inexcusable and would not exist if 
the dairyman would only do as well as he knows 
how. Some of the methods used are out of har- 
mony with modern knowledge and modem methods 
of dairying. Since the dairjnnan reads dairy litera- 
ture, the use of even a small percentage of the knowl- 

' Hunziker, Otto E., Cornell Agr. Expt., Sta. Bui. No. 197, Dec. 1901. 
' Winslow, Kenelm, Clean Milk, 1907. 

136 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 137 

edge thus gained would do away with slack and old- 
time methods. 

A few suggestions regarding the care ajid hajidling 
of milk and cream on the farm. 

176. Baxny taints. This peculiar taint (Rogers^) 
so widely known and occurring so frequently during 
the winter months, has its origin mainly in impuri- 
ties arising from manure and dusty feed. It may, 
and often does, come from impure stable air; from 
dirty cows or dirty udders during milking; from 
separating the milk in the stable and keeping it 
there over night, and from filthy and insanitary 
stables and barnyards. 

These taints may be prevented by installing a per- 
fect system of ventilation (King*) ; by keeping the 
cows, the stable and the barnyard clean; by keep- 
ing the separator clean (washing it after every time 
it is used) ; by separating the milk in a clean room 
separate from the barn and having the milk room far 
enough away from all stable and barnyard odors. 

177. In case the milk has acquired such taints, the 
creameryman must find a partial remedy for it. This 
taint can, in a measure, be overcome by skimming 
a heavy cream and diluting it with about ten per 
cent of clean, sweet morning milk. In addition to 
this, add from twenty to thirty per cent of a first 
class starter. Now ripen the cream to about .50 per 
cent acidity and cool at once to 48° F., and hold 
at this temperature for about three hours before 
churning. If the contaminated cream is hand-sep- 

=» Rogers, L. A., W. S., Farmers, Bui. 348, 1909. 

* King-, F. H., The King System of Ventilation, Seventh Ann'l. Rept., 
1890. 



138 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

arator cream, pasteurize it if possible, then ripen and 
cool the same as mentioned above. Pasteurization 
olways improves such cream and should always be 
used if possible. Add to this cream as heavy a starter 
as is possible without reducing the fat test below 23 
per cent. Cool below churning temperature and 
hold at this temperature until ready to churn, which 
will be any time after the lapse of about two hours 
after cooling. 

178. Cowy flavors. The cause of cowy flavors in 
butter is not well understood. This peculiar taint 
may be the combined result of several minor causes. 
The general impression is that it is due to insuffi- 
cient cooling and aerating of the milk before the 
cover is put on the can. Milk should not be aerated 
in impure air and should be cooled during the pro- 
cess of aeration. When milk is put warm into cans, 
the cover put on and the milk allowed to cool slowly, 
the fine flavor of the milk is spoiled. This will af- 
fect the flavor of butter, and for this reason the 
creamery operator should insist upon his patrons 
taking proper care of the milk. Care and cleanli- 
ness, and having a good system of cooling and aerat- 
ing the milk at the farm, may do away with this 
odor in the milk. 

179. Musty flavor in milk and cream. This flavor 
is due to the placing of milk in cans immediately 
after milking (especially when the stable air is im- 
pure), closing the cans and allowing the milk to cool 
slowly without stirring or aerating. When milk has 
received this treatment and the weather is warm 
when it is sent to the factory, the heat from the out- 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 139 

side causes the development of a peculiar musty 
flavor. The more slowly the milk cools, after having 
been placed warm in the cans, the more pronounced 
will be the musty flavor. This is especially notice- 
able when milk is carried for some distance in an 
open wagon. 

The dairyman should cool the milk or cream well, 
stirring and aerating it at the same time before plac- 
ing the cover on the can. If the air is exceptionally 
cool and pure, leave the cover off, placing only a flne- 
meshed screen over the can during the time the milk 
is held at the farm. 

The creamery operator should use the same 
method in separating the milk and handling the 
cream as is indicated in the treatment of milk and 
cream for barny flavors. Pasteurization of the 
cream at the creamery is recommended, as this flavor 
will pass off to a great extent during heating and 
cooling. 

180. Sweetish flavor. This flavor is very frequent- 
ly found in milk or cream where various kinds of 
silage are fed. The sweetish flavor is perhaps not 
directly due to the feeding of such feeds but to the 
contamination of the milk or cream by the odors 
given off from the feed. Milk or cream kept in the 
presence of odors from silage, especially soy bean 
silage, will very soon become contaminated by those 
odors. This sweetish flavor in milk or cream is very 
hard to deal with. The odors seem to penetrate into 
the butter fat itself and no amount of cooling, aer- 
ating, re-separating and diluting with sweet milk 



140 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

or fine starter will entirely rid the cream of this 
flavor. 

When silage is fed on dairy farms, the King system 
of ventilation is indispensable and scrupulous clean- 
liness in all things pertaining to the handling and 
feeding of silage is absolutely necessary in order to 
avoid contamination of the milk or cream from the 
odors coming from the feed. Under no circum- 
stances should the milk be separated in the stable, nor 
should it be held in an atmosphere tainted by silage 
odor for any length of time. 

181. There is really no remedy for this flavor, but 
the best thing for the creameryman to do is to sep- 
arate a heavy cream, pasteurize it, and then treat it 
according to directions for handling barny taints 
(176) in milk. If this taint is found in hand sep- 
arator cream, dilute it with water and re-separate it 
if possible. If it cannot be re-separated, pasteurize 
it at a temperature not lower than 195° F., and aer- 
ate it well while cooling. Add a heavy starter and 
stir frequently during the ripening process. Cool, 
hold for two or three hours, and then churn at as 
low a temperature as possible. Churn to very fine 
granules, wash twice with a liberal quantity of cold 
water, to which has been added one per cent of salt. 
Then salt quite heavily, work and dispose of the but- 
ter as soon as possible. 

182. Burnt flavors. During the corn-cutting sea- 
son, a peculiar, sweetish, scorched or burnt flavor is 
often noticeable in milk and cream. This seems to 
be due to the overfeeding of cornstalks, all kinds 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 141 

of corn refuse, frozen grasses, pumpkin vines and 
com smut. 

The creamery man may find it to his interest to 
suggest to the dairyman that he be careful not to 
allow his cows to gorge themselves with all kinds 
of frozen herbage and refuse from the corn fields, 
but rather allow the cows only a limited amount of 
this feed each day. 

These flavors cannot be altogether eliminated, but 
can be modified and lessened in volume by (in the 
case of milk) skimming a heavy cream, diluting it 
with good, sweet milk and adding a heavy starter. 
Both the milk and the starter added to this cream 
should be without this burnt flavor. Pasteurization 
of cream which has this flavor does not materially 
lessen it. 

183. High acid, sour and vinegar flavors. These 
flavors have a common cause and are usually the 
result of allowing milk or cream to become too old 
before delivering it at the factory. These flavors are 
especially pronounced when milk or cream is kept 
at too high a temperature at the farm or during 
transportation. The patron should cool the milk or 
cream immediately when fresh, to a reasonably low 
temperature and hold it at this temperature until 
delivered. He should deliver both milk and cream 
frequently and avoid overheating during transporta- 
tion. Milk and cream should always be kept in care- 
fully cleaned utensils, in pure air and at a low tem- 
perature. Pasteurization of such cream will greatly 
improve the keeping quality of the butter and lessen, 
to some extent, the high acid flavors. When the start- 



142 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

er is added, cool and stir the cream frequently until 
ready to churn. Churn at the lowest possible tem- 
perature, wash with cold water to which 2 per cent of 
salt has been added, salt a trifle heavily and market 
quickly. 

184. Bitter flavors. These flavors may have their 
origin in old, over-ripe cream and especially in cream 
produced under very unsanitary conditions. It may 
also be caused by a germ producing bitter fermenta- 
tion. (Russell.^) 

Cleanliness in handling milk and cream on the 
farm is the way to prevent this flavor, but when it 
is found in milk or cream, the creamery operator 
will find the treatment previously outlined for vin- 
egar (183) flavors, of value. 

185. Salvy, oily and greasy butter. The following 
are some conditions in hand separator cream previ- 
ous to its delivery at the factory which may cause 
salvy or greasy butter. Very rich cream which has 
been overheated during transportation, partly 
churned cream and old cream, all produce this con- 
dition in butter. Partly churned cream has usually 
been subjected to violent agitation during trans- 
portation and this condition invariably produces 
salvy or greasy butter. Old cream as a rule has more 
acid and is less viscous than fresh cream. It is more 
easily churned during transportation. The longer 
the cream is in transit the worse is its condition upon 
arrival at the factory, especially if it is not well 
protected against the heat of the sun. 

Warm or newly separated cream should not be ad- 
ded to cold cream, but should be cooled to about 

° Russell, L. H„ Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology, page 151, 1894. 



BUTTER FAULTS. 143 

the same temperature before mixing the two. When 
warm cream is added to cold, its warmth is likely to 
arouse the activity of spores which will cause ab- 
normal fermentations in the cream. Mixing warm 
and cold cream in hauling cans, when ice is put 
into the cans, is the source of weak bodied, soft and 
greasy butter. 

Cream haulers should have the cream cans well 
protected from the heat and should have a floating 
cream cover in every can. When the ordinary ship- 
ping cans are used, they should be full, or nearly so, 
in order to prevent unnecessary agitation of the 
cream. This agitation is likely to partly chum the 
cream and may cause losses in manufacturing the 
cream into butter. 

PART II. 

Butter faults due to improper handling of cream at 
the creamery. 

186. Avoidable burnt flavor in butter. A number 
of different ideas have been expressed as to the cause 
of burnt flavor in butter. Some have attributed this 
flavor to uncleanliness in the creamery, others to 
overheating of the cream during pasteurization, and 
still others have thought that it might be caused by 
dirty iron pipes or rusty vats. It has been noticed 
that in some instances the burnt flavor was directly 
traceable to the starter and in other cases to 
water which had collected in iron pipes and 
which was not drained off after the work had 
been done in the creamery. The water rusted in the 
pipes and when the milk was received and run 



144 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

through these pipes the rusty water mixed with the 
milk and produced a rusty iron flavor in the butter. 
Again this flavor has been traced to the starter; the 
milk for the starter having been overheated and the 
milk sugar scorched or caramelized. Milk under 
such conditions changes in color to a brownish shade. 
This peculiar scorched flavor in the milk produces 
a burnt flavor in the butter. A number of instances 
have come under my observation, where butter mak- 
ers have heated the starter milk twice or three times 
to boiling temperatures, caramelizing the milk sugar 
and leaving a decided burnt flavor on the milk. This 
burnt flavor did not leave the starter during ripen- 
ing and when added to the cream imparted a burnt 
flavor to the butter. I believe that there are various 
ways in which a burnt flavor may be produced in 
butter, but if the previously mentioned causes are 
taken into consideration in creamery management, 
burnt flavors need not appear in butter. When 
cream is well cared for, the creamery in a good sani- 
tary condition, the pipes through which the milk 
and cream flow weU cleaned, and the cream and start- 
er milk not overheated at any stage, there will be 
little trouble with burnt flavor, unless it comes from 
some outside source. 

187. Burnt flavor due to starter. When milk is 
heated to a temperature of 212° F. for one or two 
hours and re-heated to boiling temperature, a change 
in the color of the milk is noticeable. It not only 
undergoes a marked change in color, but usually 
a decided burnt flavor is produced when milk is so 
treated. The milk sugar undergoes a change and 



BUTTER FAULTS. 145 

whenever the quality of the milk sugar is affected, 
the quality of the lactic acid produced is likewise 
affected. 

This defect can be prevented by not heating the 
starter milk to such high temperature as to affect 
the character of the milk sugar. Heat the milk to be 
used for a starter, once to a temperature of 180° F. 
to 190° F. and hold at this temperature for forty min- 
utes. The finer qualities of milk for the production 
of a fine, clean, acid starter are partially if not 
wholly destroyed by overheating. 

188. Acid flavor. This flavor is due to too high 
ripening of the cream, and to holding the ripened 
cream at too high a temperature before churning. 
It is also produced by holding ripened cream too 
long before churning. When cream is held over from 
one day to another there is danger of its developing 
a sour, acid flavor even though the acidity in the 
cream is low. Using an over-ripe starter may have 
the same effect on the cream as over-ripening it. 
Such acid flavors may be prevented by handling the 
cream in such a way as to prevent the development 
of lactic acid above .65 per cent. When cream has 
developed the desired degree of acidity it should 
not be held at ripening temperature because such 
temperature favors the development of other acids 
not favorable for the production of fine flavored but- 
ter. When lactic acid in cream has developed to 
about .50 or .55 per cent acidity, it should be cooled 
to about 50° F. unless it is to be churned at once. The 
temperature of 50° F. practically stops the develop- 
ment of lactic acid. However, when cream is held 

10 



146 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

over night acidity will develop very slowly and by 
churning time the cream will have the necessary acid- 
ity. The higher the acidity in cream the lower should 
be the temperature to which it should be cooled and 
the sooner should it be churned. If it should happen 
that cream gets over-ripe, cool it immediately and 
churn it two or three hours after cooling. If it is 
impossible to churn so soon after cooling dilute the 
cream with clean, cold well water, hold at a low tem- 
perature and churn as soon as possible. Add a little 
salt to the cream and stop churning when the stage 
of fine granules is reached. Wash twice with cold 
water, to which has been added 1 per cent of salt and 
have the churn in fast gear while washing. Salt and 
work butter as usual. 

189. Coarse flavor. Coarse flavor in butter may be 
caused by faulty methods in the handling of the 
cream or the starter, or both. It may also be the re- 
sult of using poor milk or cream. When sweet, sour, 
musty, and unclean cream are mixed, a coarse flavor 
is noticeable in the butter even though the cream 
has been well cared for. Also when a variety of 
differently soured and flavored creams are mixed, the 
result is usually a coarse flavor in the butter. Im- 
properly ripened cream may also cause a coarse 
flavor in the butter made from it. 

The creameryman should try to get milk or cream 
of a uniform acidity and quality, and should not 
ripen the cream to too high acidity, nor hold it 
at a high temperature after ripening. It should be 
stirred frequently during ripening and should be 



BUTTER FAULTS. 147 

cooled to 50° F. as soon as ripe. An over-ripe or 
off-flavored starter should never be used. 

190. Unclean flavors. These flavors are usually 
the result of using unclean (Hunziker^) milk or 
cream, for which the patron is to blame, and of in- 
sanitary conditions at the creamery, for which the 
creameryman is to blame. Leaky vats, leaky 
starter cans, unclean churns and dirty conducting 
pipes are a frequent source of this trouble. Im- 
pure water used for washing both creamery utensils 
and butter has been known to cause this flavor in the 
butter. 

Unclean flavor in butter may be prevented by 
stopping all leaks in vats, pipes, and starter cans and 
by using only good, clean water for washing utensils 
and butter. The creamery should be kept in first 
class sanitary condition. If cream has this flavor, it 
should be churned to fine granules, washed twice 
with water to which has been added 1 per cent of salt 
and salted a trifle heavily. 

191. Curdy flavor. This is quite a common defect 
in butter in hot weather and is usually due to a high 
per cent of acidity in hand separator cream and the 
effect of the intense heat on the cream during trans- 
portation. Other causes of curdy flavors are: The 
pasteurizing of sour cream at a high temperature and 
the use of an over-ripe starter. Highly ripened 
cream, if overchurned may also produce curdy fla- 
vors, due to the enclosure of an excess of casein. 

To overcome such faults, pasteurize high acid 
cream very carefully and dilute it with good, sweet 
milk or a good heavy starter, after the cream is 

« Hunziker, Otto H. The Care and Handling of Milk, Bui. 203, 1902, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 



148 MOBEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

cooled for ripening. Do not ripen such cream high, 
nor keep it long after it has been ripened before 
churning it. Do not use over-ripe or curdy starters. 
High acid cream should always be strained before 
putting it into the heating compartment of the 
pasteurizer as this will prevent undue curdling of 
the casein. The addition of a little viscogen or lime 
water will neutralize the acidity and the temperature 
should be watched carefully during pasteurization. 
After churning, a little salt added to the wash water 
will aid materially in ridding the butter of this flavor. 
If about % per cent of salt is added to the cream it 
will cause the butter to come in well defined gran- 
ules. 

192. Specks in butter. There are a number of 
faults in butter which the creamery operator cannot 
prevent, but whenever specks appear in the butter, 
we must give most of the blame to the man in charge 
of the butter making. Specks are due to the incorpo- 
ration of pieces of coagulated casein and can be pre- 
vented by carefully attending to all details pertain- 
ing to the handling and ripening of cream. Over- 
ripe cream, when not well strained and which has not 
been carefully pasteurized, may cause specks in the 
butter. By the improper application of heat, the 
casein coagulates into fine granules and some of these 
granules find their way into the butter. Cream 
should always be well stirred and strained before 
churning. 

Specks in butter can be prevented by not over- 
ripening the cream and by frequently stirring the 
cream during ripening. Cream should always be 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 149 

strained into the chum through a fine sieve. 
If cream is very sour and lumpy, it should 
be well stirred and strained before pasteurizing and 
when pasteurizing this kind of cream it should be 
heated very quickly. Slow heating is likely to cause 
the casein to curdle. This cream should be churned 
at a low temperature to fine granules and 2 per cent 
of salt and 10 per cent of water should be added as 
soon as the butter '* breaks." It should then be 
churned until the granules are well defined, and the 
buttermilk drawn off in the usual way. Water 
should then be run into the churn until it is half 
full, and drained off. This should be done several 
times, until all casein is removed. In extreme cases 
it may be necessary to float the butter by filling the 
churn half full of water and allowing the casein to 
sink. The butter should then be removed to tubs, 
the water drawn off, the churn washed and the 
butter put back into the churn and worked in the 
usual way. 

PART III. 

Butter Faults Due to Faulty Workmanship. 

19S. Leaky or slushy butter. This condition in 
butter may be caused by not cooling the cream suffi- 
ciently before churning, or by churning it too soon 
after it is cooled. It may also be caused by washing 
the butter with too warm or too cold water. Wlien 
the wash water is either quite warm or quite cold 
in relation to the butter, and is not left on the butter 
long enough to temper the butter fat to a uniform 
consistency, it may cause the butter to be leaky or 



150 MODEKN BUTTEE MAKING. 

slushy. A variation in the firmness of the butter 
granules causes the harder particles to rub on the 
softer ones, and this friction injures the grain and 
causes the moisture to appear in large drops loosely 
held by the butter fat. Slushy butter is more likely to 
appear in the spring than at any other time of the 
year, because butter fat is naturally more soft in 
the spring. The cream therefore needs to be cooled 
to a lower temperature, in order to get the same 
results, than it does at any other time of the year. 
To prevent a leaky or slushy condition in butter, 
the cream should be cooled to at least 50° F. in 
spring and summer, and to 54° F. in fall and winter. 
The cream should be held at this temperature for not 
less than three hours before churning. Where there 
is much trouble with soft and leaky butter, especially 
in the spring, the cream should be cooled to 48° F. 
and held at this temperature for some considerable 
length of time — preferably over night — before churn- 
ing. The butter should be washed with water having 
a temperature of about 52° F. and the working done 
in several operations. This has a tendency to make 
the butter firmer during the incorporation of the salt. 
If the butter is too soft at the end of churning it 
can be hardened by allowing it to stand in cold water 
for ten or fifteen minutes. During this time, the 
churn should be given a few revolutions in slow gear. 
The water should then be drained off and the butter 
allowed to stand for another fifteen minutes before 
salting and working it. This is done to allow the 
coolness in the churn, and the coolness of the outside 
particles of butter, to penetrate uniformly through 



BUTTER FAULTS. 151 

the whole mass of butter. This prevents the moisture 
appearing in large drops, unevenly distributed 
through the butter. 

194. Gritty butter. The main cause of gritty butter 
is, too dry, too cold, or too much salt, in connection 
with too cold or too dry butter fat. Other causes 
are : Insufficient working, and draining too dry before 
working. This condition may be prevented by moist- 
ening the salt before putting it on the butter, and by 
leaving enough water in the churn to dissolve the 
salt, while it is being incorporated. The wash water 
should be tempered in order to give the butter the 
proper consistency for retaining the salt and dis- 
solving it. The butter should not be allowed to stand 
long before salting and working, as this will drain 
it too dry and cause it to get hard. Hard, dry salt, 
which has not been warmed nor moistened before 
adding it to the butter is a frequent source of trouble. 
Cold salt is also very frequently the cause of gritty 
butter. 

195. Mottled butter. Next to poor flavor in butter, 
mottles are most objectionable to the consumer, since 
they affect the appearance, and often give the im- 
pression that the butter is very bad, when, in reality. 
Its flavor may be good. 

This defect may be caused by insufficient working 
of the butter, by an uneven distribution of the salt, 
by an excess of casein in the butter, and by sudden 
changes of temperature of the butter, due to too cold 
or too warm wash water. Mottles are also caused 
by over churning, thus enclosing an excess of butter- 
milk and making it difficult to uniformly incorporate 



152 MODEBN BUTTEE MAKING. 

the salt. Too little washing, when the butter is 
soft, favors mottles, because the buttermilk is not 
sufficiently removed. Hard butter must be worked 
more than soft butter, and a small quantity more 
than a large quantity. Butter should be of uniform 
consistency or softness before the salt is added. 
Hard, dry salt should not be put on butter ; it should 
always be moistened before adding it to the butter. 
Draining the butter too dry, or letting it stand until 
it sets or hardens in the churn, before adding the salt, 
should always be guarded against. The butter should 
not be overchurned, the workers should be set prop- 
erly and the butter should be washed sufficiently. 
The butter should be in a soft, rather than a hard 
condition when salted, and there should be sufficient 
moisture in the churn. 

196. Salvy and greasy butter. These faults in but- 
ter are more common during warm weather than dur- 
ing the colder seasons of the year, and are most 
frequently met with during the hot, dry months. 
This condition occurs more frequently in butter made 
from hand separator cream than in butter made 
from whole milk cream. This may be mainly due 
to the difference in the care of both the milk and 
the cream at the farm, before being delivered at the 
factory; but it is sometimes due to the care the 
cream receives at the factory. When whole milk 
cream butter is salvy or greasy it is quite certain that 
the main cause of this condition is neglect on the 
part of the butter maker to take proper care of the 
cream before churning, and to properly adjust the 
temperature of the cream at the time of churning. 



BUTTER FAULTS. 153 

If the temperature of the wash water is not in proper 
relation to the temperature of the butter, and if the 
working is performed without taking the condition 
of the butter into consideration, a salvy or greasy 
condition of the butter is likely to be the result. 

When butter is made from hand separator cream, 
and upon examination is found to be salvy or greasy, 
it is not always the fault of the butter maker. Hand 
separator cream is often handled in such a way 
before it is delivered at the factory, that its condition 
is such as to render it impossible to make any other 
than salvy butter from it. However, this condition 
in butter may be caused by improper methods in per- 
forming the following operations at the creamery: 
(a) Pasteurization of cream, (b) churning of cream, 
(c) washing and (d) working of butter. 

(A) Pasteurization. The pasteurization of very 
rich cream is sometimes the cause of salvy or greasy 
butter. This may be due to any or all of the follow- 
ing: Heating the cream too slowly, heating it too 
high and not cooling it quickly to 70° F. or lower, 
after pasteurizing. Cream may be heated to 200° F. 
without injuring the quality of the butter made from 
it, provided that the heating and cooling are done 
properly and quickly. 

The poorer the cream is in butter fat, the higher 
may be the temperature during pasteurization and 
the longer may the heat be applied, before such cream 
will produce salvy or greasy butter. Rich cream, 
however, ought to be quickly heated and quickly 
cooled. 

<B) Churning of cream. The cream should be 



154 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

churned at a temperature that will favor the forma- 
tion of ragged and irregular butter granules. Any 
other condition of the butter granules at the end of 
churning, has a tendency to create an imperfect con- 
dition in the body and grain of the butter. Churn- 
ing too long favors salvy or greasy butter, due to the 
continued friction of the granules during churning. 
When cream churns too quickly, due either to high 
fat content or to high temperatures, the butter is 
inclined to be weak in body. Churning cream at 
reasonably low temperature is not the only means 
of insuring firm bodied butter. The butter fat glob- 
ules must be subjected to a certain amount of con- 
cussion. This (according to scientists) solidifies the 
fat globules. These globules are supposed to be in 
a liquid or semi-liquid state in the milk and cream, 
even when subjected to a temperature nearly down 
to the freezing point. Very rich cream is more like- 
ly to produce salvy or greasy butter than is thin 
cream. This seems to be due to the fact that very 
rich cream thickens so much during churning that 
the fat globules are not subjected to the necessary 
amount of concussion and therefore the butter may 
contain some semi-liquid fat globules. 

(C) Washing the butter. Too cold wash water 
may produce a salvy or greasy butter, by undue chill- 
ing of only a part of the butter granules. This 
creates an uneven consistency of the butter fat, 
and during working, the firmer parts cause greasiness 
by friction on the softer butter. Too warm water 
also causes the butter to become greasy or smeary, 
and no amount of care after the butter is in this 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 155 

condition will bring it back to its normal state. 
Churning butter in the wash water too long tends 
to break the grain, and produces a soft, salvy butter. 

(D) Working the butter. When butter is in a 
soft condition when worked, the fat acquires a 
greasy consistency. When butter is too hard, it 
requires such an amount of working, that the grain 
is apt to be broken, giving the butter a salvy or 
tallowy body. Another cause of this defect in butter, 
and one usually met with in the small creamery, is 
the practice of leaving the butter in the churn some 
length of time before giving it its final working. 
The outside of the mass of butter becomes soft in 
summer, and when the butter is worked, a greasy 
Dodied butter is the result. 

197. Oily butter. This butter differs greatly from 
salvy or greasy butter. When butter is spoken of 
as being oily, the impression received is that of oil 
mixed with butter. When butter of a perfect grain 
melts in the month, it does not have the characteris- 
tics of oily butter, although it is in one sense oil. 
After butter is once melted, it appears oily and no 
doubt, most of the oily flavor in butter is due to the 
butter granules which have been churned during 
tne transportation of milk or cream, being melted or 
heated during the manufacturing processes. Butter 
may, however, acquire an oily flavor when over- 
heated during transportation. Very rich cream, 
pasteurized and not cooled to a sufficiently low tem- 
perature before churning, is likely to produce oily 
butter. Conn, in Practical Dairy Bacteriology, Chap- 
ter 9, page 219, says: ''An organism capable of pro- 



156 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

ducing an oily effect on the butter, which is very 
common in Denmark, and produces considerable loss, 
has been discovered and studied by Jensen. It is 
an acid organism which curdles milk readily, but 
when growing in cream develops peculiar charac- 
teristics which give a strong, unpleasant taste. The 
result upon butter is quite disastrous." 

When very rich cream (33 to 40 per cent) is churned 
at a temperature which causes the butter to come 
very quickly, the fat globules are not all sufficiently 
solidified, and the butter is apt to have a slightly oily 
flavor. This can be prevented by cooling the cream 
low enough and holding it long enough before churn- 
ing. The richer the cream, the longer it should be 
held cold before churning, and the lower should the 
temperature be. 

W. Fleischmann, Ph. D., in The Book of the Dairy, 
says, on oily butter: 

** Churning very rich cream above 32 per cent but- 
ter fat. 

Very rich cream may easily cause oiliness in but- 
ter from the following causes: 

1. Not cooled low enough before churning even 
though the cream is held over night. 

2. By churning too fast and thereby not giving 
the fat time enough to solidify during the act of 
churning. 

3. Pasteurized rich cream must be cooled lower 
than unpasteurized cream of the same richness." 

My practical work and observations in creamery 
butter making agree with the findings of Dr. Meisch- 
mann. I have noticed repeatedly that when cream 



BUTTER FAULTS. 157 

testing above 33 per cent was churned, the butter 
easily took on a greasy texture. 

In paragraph 197. will be found an explanation 
of conditions that may cause oily butter. 

198. Woody flavor. This flavor may be imparted 
to butter by a leaky vat (the water which surrounds 
the vat leaking into the cream) or by a new churn 
which has not been sufficiently washed and soaked 
with hot water before being used. It may also be 
caused by an old churn not being rinsed before the 
cream is put into it. A new churn should be washed 
several times with hot water in which sal soda 
has been dissolved. After each washing with hot 
water, the churn should be cooled by washing it with 
cold water. When buttermilk can be had, it is a 
good plan to churn buttermilk in the new chum for 
half an hour. Buttermilk or sour milk will absorb 
woody taints from the churn more quickly than 
water will. 

199. Lardy or tallowy butter. Conditions which 
produce lardy or tallowy butter are not definitely 
known. These defects may appear at any season 
of the year, but most frequently make their appear- 
ance during cold weather. The reason for this may 
be, the use of too cold wash water and washing the 
butter too much, when cream has been churned at 
a comparatively high temperature. Certain dry feeds 
may have a tendency toward producing this defect 
in butter, but as yet it has not been definitely deter- 
mined just what conditions are responsible for it. 

200. Fishy flavor. This very objectionable flavor 
seems to appear most frequently in butter made 



158 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

from over-ripe, old and unclean milk or cream; es- 
pecially if it is delivered in old and dirty cans. In 
one instance fishy flavor disappeared upon the im- 
provement of sanitary conditions under which the 
milk was produced and delivered, as well as the 
conditions under which the butter was made. From 
this it would seem that cleanliness has a great effect 
on the extent of the appearance of this flavor. It is 
the opinion of some people that salt favors the pro- 
duction of fishy flavor in butter, but there seems to 
be very little doubt that it is due to unclean milk or 
cream, and the extent to which it may develop is in 
proportion to the extent to which the milk or cream 
is contaminated. It is possible that fishy flavor is 
due to by-products of certain undesirable bacteria. 
These by-products, when combined with lactic acid 
and salt, may produce this flavor. It has been noted 
that dirty milk cans, especially when the iron is 
exposed to the action of acid, have caused the appear- 
ance of fishy flavor. 

201. Brittle butter. This is not a common defect 
in butter, and is known to appear more frequently 
in some localities than in others. Excessive feeding 
of beet leaves has been known to produce a brittle 
body in butter. Washing butter in very cold water 
has a tendency to make it dry, with a slightly brittle 
body. The use of very high temperatures in the 
pasteurization of cream is also thought to have been 
the cause of brittle butter. By carefully attending 
to all the different processes in butter making, and 
properly adjusting the temperatures used in pas- 
teurizing, ripening and churning the cream, and 



BUTTEE FAULTS. 159 

washing the butter, this kind of butter may be 
avoided. 

202. Unclean flavor. The expression ''unclean" is 
very commonly used in describing taints which are 
hard to classify. Unclean flavor may be the result 
of various causes, and may originate in contamina- 
tion from impure air, impure water, insanitary uten- 
sils used in the handling of the cream, or unclean 
machines used in the manufacture of the butter. 
Unclean flavor in butter simply means that at some 
stage in the handling of the milk or cream, or in 
the manufacture of the butter, insanitary conditions 
existed. These conditions must be improved before 
this flavor can be done away with. Instances are 
common where this flavor is due to the water used 
at the creamery. The butter is apparently good 
when very fresh, but soon after being placed on the 
market, a disagreeable, unclean flavor develops. 

203. Coarse flavor. A coarse (189) flavor in butter 
is usually the result of high ripening of the cream, 
and too little washing of the butter. High salting 
seems to bring out the high acid flavor, and these two 
(high acid and salt) combined with a leaky bodied 
butter, produce a very coarse flavor, which is de- 
cidedly objectionable to the palate. The use of an 
over-ripe starter also has a tendency to produce 
coarse flavored butter. 



CHAPTER XI. 
THE ART OF BUTTER JUDGING. 



Flavor should be rich, pleasing, creamy 
and should suggest nothing objectionable 
to either the taste or smell.— 

Math Michels. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER XL 



Pax. No. Page. 

204. A uniform standard 162 

205. Personal preference 162 

206. Ability of judges 163 

207. Aroma and flavor 163 

208. Body of butter 164 

209. Appearance of the drawn plug 164 

210. Regarding color of butter 165 

211. Regarding specks in butter 165 

212. Regarding salt in butter - 165 

213. Regarding briny and leaky butter 166 

214. The package 166 

215. American standard for scoring butter 166 

216. Relative scoring of butter 166 

217. A table showing relative defects in butter . 167 

218. Classification of butter necessary for accurate point 

scoring 168 

219. The value of discussing and comparing scores by 

judges --- 169 



CHAPTER XI. 
The Art of Butter Judging. 

204. Classifying butter has been customary ever 
since butter was manufactured for commercial pur- 
poses. Since people have trained themselves to 
pass judgment on butter in accordance with certain 
standards of excellence, butter judging has become 
both a science and an art. 

Different markets in the United States demand 
butter of about the same standards of perfection 
except in color and salt. This is due to the demand 
of some local markets. Since the variations in the 
standards of the different American markets are very 
slight, butter judges do not find it very difficult to 
score butter satisfactorily in any state. 

205. Personal preference. That individual tastes 
vary and that standards of individual preference 
are widely diverse are well known facts. Since 
flavors affect the palates of some persons more than 
others, no two persons, however acute their senses, 
can always score the same butter alike ; nor can one 
judge always give the same butter exactly the same 
score even though the scorings are not taken far 
apart. Individual peculiarity is responsible for the 
difference of opinion relative to certain defects in the 
flavor and aroma of butter. Since some defects in 
butter appear more pronounced to one person than 
to another, a variation in the score of the same butter 
by different judges is inevitable. 

162 



THE AET OF BUTTER JUDGING. 163 

206. Butter judges bom not made. The faculty of 
judging butter accurately and uniformly is an art — 
a gift of nature, though often perfected by training. 
No amount of training will make an expert butter 
judge unless nature has contributed her share of 
those qualities necessary for the proper performance 
of this art. In view of the difficulty of a judge 
giving the same decision on the same butter with no 
small variation it is necessary if it can be so arranged 
to have more than one judge for scoring the same 
lot of butter. This view is recognized by those in 
charge of scoring exhibitions and more than one 
judge is usually employed for such work. 

207. Aroma and flavor. Aroma in butter is that 
quality which is detected only by smell, while flavor 
refers only to the taste of butter, although both 
terms are not generally accepted in this li^ht. The 
quality of the aroma is not always a true indication 
of the quality of the flavor, although to a great extent 
the flavor can be fairly well judged from the quality 
of the aroma. Having determined the defects found 
in the aroma, the judge must taste the butter in order 
to determine the defects existing in the flavor. The 
aroma and flavor are very closely related. In the 
aroma are found characteristics due to bacterial fer- 
mentation and to chemical changes, while in the 
flavor are found both mechanical and physical char- 
acteristics as well as some of the defects found in 
the aroma. Contamination, due to unsanitary hand- 
ling of the cream, may manifest itself either in the 
aroma or in the flavor or in both, depending upon 
the nature of the contamination. 



164 THE AET OF BUTTER JUDGING. 

208. Body of butter. By carefully watching how 
the trier passes into the tub and how it pulls from 
it, the body of the butter can to a great extent 
be determined. Then by gently pressing the plug 
with the thumb and critically noting the appearance 
of it, mechanical defects may be ascertained. When 
butter is greasy, due perhaps to overchuming, over- 
working or washing in warm water, and if the back 
of the trier is greasy and the plug appears smeary, as 
a rule, the flavor and aroma of this type of butter are 
poor. A defect in body means a fault in the aroma 
or flavor or both. Overworked, greasy, mushy butter 
deserves to be severely criticized, as it is within the 
power of the butter maker to prevent these defects. 
Such defects are primary causes of developing stale- 
ness and rancidity in butter. The breaking of the 
grain in butter is usually accompanied by a charac- 
teristic greasy flavor and a low, flat aroma. The 
destruction of the grain in butter affects the aroma 
and destroys the ** bouquet'* quality so much sought. 

209. Appearance of the drawn butter plug. The 
plug from a first class piece of butter should have 
a glossy, smooth, clean cut appearance and should 
be beaded with minute drops of water. If the plug is 
beaded with large drops of water which trickle down 
and drop off when the plug is withdrawn the butter 
is, as a rule, leaky and may be lacking in the finer 
qualities of aroma and flavor. On the other hand 
when the plug is greasy, dull and very dry in appear- 
ance, the aroma and flavor may be of a disagreeable 
character and are likely to be of an oily and greasy 
nature. The broken end of a plug of butter should 



MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 165 

have a granular appearance, with small drops of 
water glistening among the granules at the break. 
When the plug of butter splits easily upon being 
pressed between the finger and the trier, the butter 
has not been sufficiently worked or else has been 
worked at too low a temperature. Such butter is 
inclined to be mottled. Mechanical defects of this 
kind should be severely criticized and the cause and 
remedy for such defects should accompany the score. 

210. Coloring butter. Butter is colored as a rule 
according to market demands. Some butter houses 
as well as some consumers, demand a very deep color, 
while others demand a very light colored butter. 
Butter judges do not find fault with a very slight 
variation from a normal shade, but they do find fault 
with too great a variation from the normal butter 
shade. All abnormal variations in the depth of the 
color of the butter should be criticized. Streaked- 
ness is one of the greatest faults of butter, and a 
reduced score is always given when butter is badly 
mottled. This fault has in many cases been the cause 
of heavy financial losses to the creameryman because 
consumers object to mottled butter. 

211. Specks in butter. Specks in butter are not 
due to faults in the process of manufacturing the 
butter, but are due to faulty cream ripening and 
to improper straining of the cream. This fault is 
always severely criticized because of the nature of 
the cause. 

212. Salting. Grittiness in butter is a great defect ; 
butter judges and butter buyers do not like butter 
which is gritty. Therefore in judging butter the 



166 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

degree of grittiness has a great influence on the final 
score. This defect can be easily remedied. 

213. Briny and leaky butter is usually caused by 
working the butter under abnormal conditions, and 
they usually go together. The salt should always 
be well dissolved and evenly distributed. Uniformity 
in salting butter is very much liked by dealers, as 
well as consumers. 

Excessive brine in butter partly destroys the fine 
aroma, injures the flavor, lowers the score and re- 
duces the commercial value of butter. 

214. The packagfe to be perfect, should be neat and 
clean. The butter should be even vdth the top of the 
package, and the liner should be turned onto the 
butter about one inch. A cloth with a little salt 
should be on top, and a parchment circle should be 
on top of this. Tacks used for tagging should not 
penetrate into the butter, as they leave rusty spots 
on it. The hoops should be all on the tub and the 
tin cover fasteners should be properly attached. 

215. Butter scoring. American standard. 
Flavor — 45, Fairly pronounced, sweet, clean, nut- 
ty, aromatic and full of character. 

Body — 25. Waxy, grainy, firm, smooth, close and 
glossy. 

Color — 15. Even, natural and neither too high 
nor too low. 

Salt — 10. Medium, well dissolved and fairly briny. 

Package — 5. Neat, clean and full package. 

Total 100 points. 

216. Relative scoring of butter. On a scoring blank 
we find that the number of points allowed on package 



THE AET OF BUTTER JUDGING. 



167 



is 5, while on flavor it is 45, or nine times the value 
placed on package. If we score off one-half point 
on package, we must score off about 4.5 points on 
flavor, if the flavor shows the same degree of defect 
as the package shows. If the body, which carries 25 
points as a perfect score, shows a defect sufficient to 
reduce the score 2i/2 points, we must, if the flavor 
shows a defect which would take y^o o^ the perfect 
score, take off 4% points on flavor. This constitutes 
relative scoring and is the only way to score butter. 
In scoring, we must bear in mind that when the pack- 
age is only very slightly defective, we should not 
score off one point and at the same time score off 
only four points for a very defective flavor. 

I wish to bring out the basis of comparison upon 
which the scoring of butter should be performed, 
and trust that it may establish in the minds of cream- 
ery operators a clearer conception of the principles 
involved in scoring butter. Suppose that we have a 
tub of butter where the flavor, body, color, salt and 
package are all slightly defective. In order to show- 
more clearly how it should appear when tabulated, 
the following table is prepared. 

217. Relative score. 



No. Points full Score 


Scored Off 


Final Score 


Flavor 45. 
Body 25. 
Color 15. 
Salt 10. 
Package 5. 


4% 
21/2 
1.5 
1 


40.5 

22.5 

13.5 

9. 

4.5 


100. 




90. 



168 THE AET OF BUTTER JUDGING. 

Classification of butter necessary for accurate point 

scoring. 

218. During two years as one of the butter judges 
appointed by the University of Wisconsin Dairy 
School to judge the butter at the monthly exhibi- 
tions at that school, and also while instructor in 
dairying at the same time, some ideas came to me 
which might, perhaps, be used in the scoring of 
butter to increase the value and accuracy of scor- 
ing by *' points." 

Judges who are at all acute find it difficult to give 
butter scoring 96 points, the proper score, when 
preceded by a package scoring 80 points ; or on the 
other hand when the first tub scored 95 points and 
the one following scored 82 points. The butter which 
was scored 82 after scoring the 95 point butter, 
should perhaps have received a score of 83 or 84, but 
the contrast between the two tubs was so great that 
the butter seemed really poorer than it was. We 
must admit that we score to some extent by com- 
parison as well as by a definite standard. Therefore 
it is plain that the greater the difference in the 
quality of butter in the different packages, the 
greater are the chances for inaccuracy in scoring. 
It stands to reason that the smaller the variation in 
quality in the successive packages the more uniform 
can the scoring be. If this were not so, why should 
a ** shake down" be considered necessary for the 
placing of the final and rightful score on a number 
of the highest scoring packages? The principle 
involved in the ** shake down" is the same as that 
in scoring by point — each class or grade by itself. 



THE ART OF BUTTEE JUDGING. 169 

The greater the knowledge we gain in scoring butter 
and the higher the grade of work we can do, the 
nearer we approach the system of scoring by points 
first being classified or graded. Or in other words 
the ''shake down" principle is carried through the 
whole scoring of butter. 

The value of discussing and comparing scores by 



219. Depriving judges of the right to discuss and 
compare scores after a number of tubs have been 
judged, seems like proclaiming that people are in- 
fallible in their judgments, and in their likes and 
dislikes. It also means that butter judges can set 
a certain standard of their own and carry this 
through the process of scoring one hundred or five 
hundred packages of butter without variations. 

The discussing and comparing of scores is neces- 
sary if the work executed is to be of high class. It 
sharpens the sense of proportion and relative analy- 
sis of faults in butter. It gives confidence to the 
judges in their future work, and acts as a guide and 
a check on one 's own judgment. It curbs assertive- 
ness, positiveness and conceit in one's own decisions. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PASTEURIZATION. 



Oh! There is a rich field indeed 
for investigation. — 



Louis Pasteur. 



PASTEURIZATION OF MILK AND 
CREAM FOR CITY SUPPLY. 



While the process (pasteurization) is not an 

absolute protection against digestive troubles 

it is to-day recognized as a useful means of 

reducing them. — 

H. W. Conn. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER XIL 



Par. No. Page. 

220. (A) Pasteurization of cream for buttermaking 173 

221. Pasteurization conducive to better methods 174 

222. Preparing cream for pasteurization 175 

223. Mixing of sweet and sour cream 175 

224. The use of viscogen in pasteurization 176 

225. Object of pasteurization 177 

226. Heating and cooling the cream 177 

227. Using intermittent pasteurizers 178 

228. Some investigations 179 

(a) Do you favor pasteurization of cream for but- 
termaking? 179 

(b) Do you think that pasteurized cream will pro- 
duce better and longer keeping butter than raw 
cream? 179 

(c) Do you believe that hand separator cream 
shoula be churned soon after delivery? 180 

(d) What is the best temperature at which to pas- 
teurize cream? 180 

Tubercle bacilli in market butter 181 

229. Importance of aeration of cream during pasteur- 

ization or ripening - 182 

230. Conditions on dairy farms not yet ideal 182 

231. Physicians advise pasteurization 183 

232. Pasteurization not intended to cover up faults 183 

233. New methods opposed 184 

234. Market milk should be pasteurized 185 

235. Bacteria in market milk 185 

236. Bacteria before and after pasteurization 186 

237. Eesults of continuous pasteurization of milk 186 

Table XIV. and XV. 



CHAPTEE XII. 

Par. No. Page. 

238. Development of bacteria in milk 187 

239. Care and cleanliness in handling milk 188 

240. Clarification and separation 189 

241. The grading of milk 189 

242. Variation in test of cows' milk 190 

243. Table showing variation in test 191 

244. Variation in tests, as found by C. O. Jensen 192 

245. Temperatures for pasteurization 192 

246. Temperatures recommended by Jensen and Platnner 193 

247. Intermittent system of pasteurization 194 

248. Advantages and disadvantages of intermittent sys- 

tems 194 

249. Eegarding continuous pasteurizers 195 

250. Eegarding semi- continuous pasteurizers 195 

251. Cleaning pasteurizers 196 

252. Prejudice against pasteurized milk and cream 196 

253. Sources of bacteria in milk 197 

254. Epidemics caused by raw milk 197 



CHAPTER XII. 
Pasteurization. 

220. (A) Pasteurization of cream for butter mak- 
ing. Even though the commercial score were the 
same in both pasteurized and unpasteurized butter of 
a certain age we would still feel inclined to believe 
it a fact that the butter made from pasteurized cream 
is essentially the better butter. Pasteurization of 
cream does not add any flavor to the butter made 
from it, but pasteurization has the faculty of refining 
all flavors whether good or bad in cream, and the 
process of heating and cooling drives off impure 
odors. It also materially lessens obnoxious fermenta- 
tions and renders the cream safe from the evil effects 
of disease producing organisms. Not only this, but 
pasteurization (Slater^) also imparts keeping qual- 
ities to milk and through this to the butter made 
from it (Dean^). Trials have been made comparing 
pasteurized and unpasteurized cream butter made 
from the same lot of cream, both being held at a tem- 
perature of 65° to 75° F. and it was found that the 
pasteurized cream butter remained in good condition 
twelve days longer than did the butter made from 
unpasteurized cream. 

Considering the pasteurization of cream for butter 
making in its broadest sense, I am fully convinced 
from results obtained by men engaged in pasteuri- 

' Slater, E. K. Wisconsin Buttermakers Association, Feb. 1904. Third 
Annual Report, pag-e 122. 

' Dean, H. H. Modern Dairying, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 
Sept. 30, 1903. Vol.23. 

173 



174 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

zation as well as from my own personal experience 
that pasteurization of cream for butter making is 
correct in principle and sound in application under 
present dairy conditions. 

221. That pasteurization favors slack and unsani- 
tary methods in the handling of dairy products 
(Rogers-^) does not coincide with the methods em- 
ployed in pasteurization plants nor does it agree with 
the fact that wherever pasteurization is employed, 
more expert service is necessary and better methods 
are invariably employed. The fact that men of high- 
er caliber are employed means the adoption of better 
methods all along the line, from producer to con- 
sumer. Practice does not sustain the contention that 
pasteurization favors slack methods, because the 
poorer the quality of the raw material the greater is 
the loss during the manufacturing process. Pasteuri- 
zation of cream for butter making will not receive its 
due recognition until the fundamental principles in- 
volved in it are well understood and the methods 
of application recognized as worthy of thought and 
study. So long as the belief exists that all there 
is to the process of pasteurization is the mere heating 
and cooling of the cream without taking into con- 
sideration the quality of the cream handled, the kind 
of machine used and the time it is to be heated, pas- 
teurization will not be received with much favor by 
ereamerymen. 

Since we cannot yet hope to have sweet, clean 
cream produced and delivered to any creamery where 
we have third or fourth class dairymen to deal with 

^ Rog-ers, L. A. Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk 
Under Laboratory Conditions. U. S. Bulletin No. 54, 



PASTEUEIZATION. 175 

we must pasteurize the cream. If we had all first 
class dairjmien and were positive that all the cows 
were healthy, the help employed free from commu- 
nicable diseases and the water pure, we might dis- 
pense with pasteurization altogether. However, as 
we do not have this ideal condition at present it is 
certainly safer to pasteurize all cream for butter 
making. 

222. Preparation of cream for pasteurization. All 
cream whether sweet or sour must be thoroughly 
mixed before being put into the pasteurizing machine. 
Unless the butter fat is evenly distributed through 
the cream the result will not be satisfactory. When 
cream is sour and lumpy when received it should be 
strained through a wire strainer and afterward thor- 
oughly stirred in order to break up all clots and 
break up the coagulated casein into the smallest 
possible particles. If this is not done the clots of 
casein when heated will curdle and form hard gran- 
ules enclosing fat globules. Some of these granules 
of casein and butter fat will go into the buttermilk 
when the cream is churned, and some of them will 
go into the butter. These specks of casein in the 
butter may cause the butter to decompose more read- 
ily and may also be the cause of reduced price ob- 
tained for butter. If an intermittent pasteurizer is 
used in pasteurizing lumpy cream, the granules of 
casein produce a sediment in the bottom of the 
pasteurizer. 

223. Mixing sweet and sour cream. When a cream- 
ery receives a large quantity of both sweet and sour 
cream, these should not be mixed unless it is neces- 



176 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

sary to do so when cream is gathered. Whenever 
possible each should be pasteurized by itself, as 
mixed cream burns onto the pasteurizer more easily 
than either sweet or sour cream when pasteurized 
by itself. Well ripened cream will not bum onto a 
disc pasteurizer, and it will not so easily burn onto 
any other pasteurizer as mixed cream will. 

224. The use of viscogen in cream (Russell*) as a 
means to reduce the acidity in order that cream may 
be more successfully pasteurized is to be recom- 
mended. Whenever state or federal laws allow the 
use of viscogen it is well to use it, because it can 
be successfully used in pasteurizing sour cream. 

To prepare viscogen for restoring the consistency of 
pasteurized cream. 

Two and one-half parts by weight of a good qual- 
ity of granulated sugar are dissolved in five parts of 
water, and one part of quick lime gradually slaked 
in three parts of water. The resulting milk should 
be agitated at frequent intervals, and after two or 
three hours allowed to settle until the clear liquid 
can be drawn off. This clear liquid (viscogen) is 
the part used and should be kept in well-stoppered 
bottles, as it loses strength and becomes dark-colored 
when exposed to air. The darkening in color, how- 
ever, does not impair its usefulness. 

When cream is very sour and of poor flavor, more 
viscogen may be used than with good cream, without 

♦ Russell, H. L. Bulletin No. 54, Wis. Expt. Sta. 



PASTEUEIZATION. 177 

injuring the cream in any way. Use not more than 
.4 per cent of viscogen in cream of good flavor and 
high acid, and not more than I/2 per cent of viscogen 
in off flavored cream. Too much viscogen in cream 
kills the aroma and flavor in the butter made from 
it, and imparts a peculiar limy flavor to it. 

225. Object of pasteurization. In pasteurizing we 
aim to destroy all lactic acid producing bacteria and 
as many other kinds of bacterial life, the thermal 
death point of which comes within the range of the 
heat applied. By destroying practically all abnormal 
fermentations and disease producing germs the cream 
is rendered comparatively free from germ life and in 
this condition the cream is in the best possible shape 
for controlling lactic acid fermentation and produc- 
ing a high grade of butter. (Conn.^) 

226. Heating and cooling. When using a continu- 
ous machine the cream may be heated to 190° F. 
without injuring the flavor of the butter made from 
it or increasing losses in the buttermilk. The poorer 
the flavor of the cream the higher should be the tem- 
perature used in pasteurizing unless this cream has 
been heated in a separate tank to a temperature of 
about 125° F. and thoroughly stirred for the purpose 
of removing bad odors. After pasteurizing, the cool- 
ing must be rapid and thorough. The cream should 
be cooled to ripening temperature unless it is rich 
enough to aUow the addition of 30 per cent or 40 
per cent of starter. If this is possible the cream 
should be cooled to below 53° F. and held at a low 
temperature until churning time. When thin cream 

•Conn, H. W. Bacteria in Milk and its Products, 1903; Chapter 7, 
pages 208, 213, 226, 228. 
12 



178 PASTEUEIZATION. 

is pasteurized and is to be ripened, it should be 
cooled to ripening temperature as it flows from the 
machine and the starter added at once. 

Suppose a continuous pasteurizer is to be used 
to pasteurize very thin cream which is both off 
flavored and of high acidity. In this case do not 
run the machine at its full capacity but reduce the 
inflow by one-half. Raise the temperature to about 
190° F. and pasteurize as usual. Cool to below 55° 
F., add as much starter as the richness of the cream 
will allow, hold for three or four hours and then 
churn. Be sure to add a good starter as this will 
absorb any burnt flavors and produce a fine flavored 
butter. (Larsen & Shepard.^) Again, let me empha- 
size the fact that a large quantity of good starter 
is a powerful factor in ridding cream of bad odors 
and burnt flavors. In order to get rid of burnt 
flavors acquired by pasteurizing do not churn cream 
in one-half or an hour after pasteurizing, but add 
a good starter and allow it to do its work. 

227. When intermittent pasteurizers are used the 
cream should not as a rule have a very high acidity 
if good results are to be obtained. When cream has 
more than .4 per cent acidity the casein curdles very 
easily and the enclosure of fat globules is inevitable. 
The result will be a heavy loss in the buttermilk. The 
success attained in the handling of sour cream in 
either the continuous or intermittent pasteurizer 
depends to a great extent upon the skill of the oper- 
ator. The continuous pasteurizer is preferable for 
handling hand separator cream or any cream which 
has developed high acid. 

• Larsen & Shepard. A Study of South Dakota Butter with Sujfges- 
tioais for Improvement, pagre 487. 



MODERN BUTTEB MAKING. 179 

228. Investigations. Since data on pasteurization 
of cream for butter making is limited, and in order 
to prove or disprove certain opinions and the re- 
sults of some investigations, letters of inquiry on this 
subject were sent to some of the best creameries in 
every dairy state in the union. The answers are 
based on the results of practical work and we may 
therefore accept, at least in part, the conclusions 
reached by these practical men. Question one was: 

(A) Do you favor pasteurization of cream for 
butter making? 

A very small percentage of the answers do not 
favor pasteurization, but the statement is qualified 
by another stating that if the cream were not of the 
best quality, pasteurization would be desirable. Nine- 
ty-four per cent are highly in favor of pasteurization 
and ten per cent of these claim that the market ought 
to recognize pasteurized cream butter and pay more 
for it. They may not, however, take into considera- 
tion the fact that the increased stability of their mar- 
ket is fully worth the cost of pasteurizing. Most of 
the answers claim that good, pure, sweet cream need 
not be pasteurized. 

Question two : 

(B) Do you think that pasteurized cream will pro- 
duce better and longer keeping butter than raw 
cream? 

Ninety-five per cent claim that pasteurization of 
cream increases the keeping quality of the butter 
made from it. Some few qualify their statements 
by saying that the keeping quality of butter made 
from pure, sweet cream is not increased by pasteuri- 



180 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

zation. Some place great stress upon the necessity 
of having all processes connected with pasteurization 
properly handled, since if this is not done pasteuri- 
zation is not of much value. Some state that their 
experience during fifteen years of pasteurizing cream 
for butter making shows that butter made from pas- 
teurized cream had superior keeping qualities. 
Question three: 

(C) Do you believe that hand separator cream 
should be churned soon after its delivery? 

Most of the answers received claim that when 
cream is received in fairly good condition it should 
be ripened to about .5 per cent acidity and held for 
at least three hours (in most cases until next morn- 
ing) before churning. In case of poor pasteurized 
cream the adding of a heavy starter is advocated; 
the cream to be cooled and held for about three hours 
before churning. The churning of mixed sweet and 
sour cream soon after it is poured together is not 
favored, as it is claimed that losses in the buttermilk 
are heavier than when such cream is held for some 
time before churning. Due to the condition of the 
average hand separator cream about thirty per cent 
of the answers state that it should be pasteurized, 
quickly ripened and cooled as low as the richness of 
the cream would permit for proper churning. They 
advocate holding it for about three hours before 
churning. 

Question four: 

(D) What is the best temperature at which to 
pasteurize cream? 

According to the answers to this question, the 
general opinion is that the temperature at which to 



PASTEUBIZATION. 



181 



pasteurize cream depends mainly upon the condition 
of the cream — that is, it depends upon the richness, 
age, acidity and flavor of the cream. The kind of 
pasteurizer used is given as another important factor 
influencing the temperature at which to pasteurize. 
The average temperature suggested is about 175° F. 
for continuous machines and about 150° F. for inter- 
mittent machines. No definite temperature can be 
recommended because in some localities the cream 
must be handled differently than in others. 

Tubercle bacilli in market butter. 



TABLE XIII. 



Names of 
Investigators 


No. of 

samples 
tested 


No. in 
which 
tubercle 
bacilli 
was 
found 


Per- 
centage 


Remarks 


Brusaffero 


9 


1 


" 




Roth 


20 


2 


10 




Schuchardt 


42 










Obermueller 


14 


14 


100 


Obtained from one source. 


Groeing 


17 


8 


47 




Petri 


102 


33 


32 


From Berl'n and Munchen. 


Robinowitsch 


80 








1 SO samples from Berlin. 

1 50 samples from Philadelphia. 


Hormann and 
Morgenroth 


10 


3 


30 




Robinowitsch 


15 


2 


13.3 


Obtained from 14 shops. 


Korn 


17 


4 


23 


Obtained from 22 shops. 


Ascher 


27 


2 


7 




Weisenfeld 


32 


3 


9 




Hellstrau 


12 


1 


8 




Bonhoff 


39 










Marke 


49 










Augeszky 


17 


s 


17 





182 MODEEN BUTTEB MAKING. 

The above results were taken from Swithinbank 
and Newman, Bacteriology of Milk, 1903. 

It is remarked that perhaps not all bacilli found 
in butter were tubercle bacilli. Still pasteurization 
of cream would make butter safe. 

229. Importance of aeration of cream during pas- 
teurization or ripening. 

The aeration of cream plays a very important part 
in ridding it of bad odors and in facilitating the 
production of fine flavors. The benefits derived from 
proper aeration are underestimated by creamerymen 
at the present time. The circulation of pure, fresh air 
purifies both milk and cream; therefore aeration 
must be done in pure air, or the cream will absorb 
instead of giving off odors. Whenever the air is 
purer than the milk or cream, good will be accom- 
plished by aeration, especially during pasteurization 
of either milk or cream to be used for butter making. 

(B) Pasteurization of milk and cream for city 
supply. 

230. Experiences and opinions of different authori- 
ties vary with regard to the benefits derived from 
pasteurization of milk and cream for city supply. 
Puxley in Modern Dairy Farming, chapter VII., page 
83, says: 

**See that every precaution is taken to keep the 
milk absolutely pure as it comes from the cow; 
cleanse every utensil employed in the handling of 
milk thoroughly by scalding with steam or boiling 
water; cool the milk to as near 40° as possible 
before it is despatched on its long journey by rail; 



PASTEUEIZATION. 183 

see that it is delivered as quickly as possible on 
reaching its destination; allow no preservatives to 
be introduced at any time or in any quantities; and 
feed young infants with milk at the natural tempera- 
ture and in small quantities at a time.'* 

The average milk and cream consumer would glad- 
ly drink raw milk or cream strictly pure, if he were 
so situated as to be able to afford it. When milk and 
cream are produced under strictly cleanly conditions, 
drawn from healthy cows by healthy workers, the 
cost of production exceeds the price which the aver- 
age consumer can afford to pay. 

231. When children are sick and milk and cream 
are prescribed as a part or entire diet, and its source 
as to cleanliness is questioned, the attending physi- 
cian invariably insists that the milk or cream be heat- 
ed or pasteurized. (Doan and Price. ^) 

232. Pasteurization is not intended to cover up 
faults in cream and milk and it will never be used 
for this purpose by intelligent dairymen, nor is pas- 
teurization merely a fad; if it had not filled a real 
and long felt want, its use would have been discon- 
tinued long ago. Instead of being discontinued it is 
rapidly gaining in favor and will continue to be 
employed until we have such well regulated dairies 
and such good transportation facilities, as to render 
it unnecessary and therefore unprofitable. Not until 
we can procure clean, sweet milk, which is free from 
disease producing germs, dare we dispense with pas- 
teurization of both milk and cream. Pasteurization 
imparts to market milk and cream a fine flavor, en- 
hances its keeping qualities, and makes it safe for 

' Doan and Price, Bulletin No. 77, Maryland Station, page 10, 1901. 



184 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

infant feeding when condensed or evaporated milk 
cannot be used. 

l^en if pasteurization of milk (MarshalP) did 
nothing more than to kill disease producing germs 
(Fleischmann^) which may get into the milk or 
cream, we would feel warranted in establishing a sys- 
tem of pasteurization in all city milk plants. 

233. Whenever anything new is introduced, it is 
usually received with suspicion and disfavor, re- 
gardless of its value to mankind. Instances are 
known where the introduction of something new, 
although of great value to mankind, was met with 
unwarranted opposition. In some ways this tendency 
of the public is commendable, because it acts as a 
check upon the introduction of useless things devised 
mainly for the purpose of deceiving the public. Any 
method, system, procedure or device which gains 
favor in spite of opposition must be fundamentally 
right. Pasteurization occupies such a place at pres- 
ent. It is gaining in favor among all classes of peo- 
ple and is of great economic value to the dairy 
industry today. Should the death of a person be the 
direct result of the use of pasteurized milk, this 
would be made known to all the world; but we all 
know that very little is said regarding all the lives 
that are saved by the use of pasteurized milk. It 
is acknowledged that the mortality in children, es- 
pecially those under the age of three years, has been 
greatly reduced by the use of pasteurized milk and 
cream. Some even claim (MarshalP^) that infant 

« Marshall, C. E. Bacteria and the Diary. Bulletin No. 46, page 48, 
Mich. 1907. 

« Fleischman, W. The Book of the Dairy. Chapter VI. page 276. 1896. 

'"Marshall, C. E. Killing the Tubercle Bacilli in Milk. Mich. 
Bulletin 172-173, page 821. 1899. 



PASTEUEIZATION. 185 

mortality lias been reduced by one-half where even 
only part of the city milk has been pasteurized. 

Ideal conditions on dairy farms under which sani- 
tary milk and cream can be produced at a price with- 
in reach of the working man have not yet been at- 
tained and it seems doubtful that they ever will be. 

234. That all milk used for city supply not classed 
as certified or inspected is recommended to be pas- 
teurized (Govt. Bul.^^), is a step in the right direc- 
tion and deserves the attention of all right minded 
milk dealers and city officials. In the future we shall 
have more city officials who favor pasteurization as 
a legitimate means by which the public will be 
supplied with better and safer milk. Far-sighted 
businessmen recognize not only the commercial value 
of pasteurization but also its value as a means of 
preventing the spread of disease. Nathan Strauss 
says: *'I consider pasteurization of the milk supply 
— and the great majority of the scientific world 
agrees with me — one of the most important weapons 
in fighting the white plague.'' 

235. Bacteria in market milk. In fifty-seven sam- 
ples of Boston milk Sedgwick and Batchelder found 
from 30,000 to 4,220,000 bacteria per cubic centi- 
meter. Hill and Slack on examining 2,394 samples, 
nearly all taken as the milk arrived in the city, found 
that 42 per cent of the milk contained less than 
100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter ; 29.75 per cent 
contained between 100,000 and 500,000; 12.75 per 
cent contained between 1,000,000 and 5,000,000 ; 9.75 
per cent contained between 500,000 and 1,000,000; 
and 5 per cent contained above 5,000,000 bacteria per 

' ' Government Circular 114, page 7. 1907. 



186 



MODEEN BUT TEE MAKING. 



cubic centimeter. Some samples of milk taken in 
New York, at the time of its arrival there, were 
found to contain 15,163,600 bacteria per cubic centi- 
meter. 

236. Bacteria before and after pasteurization. 

That raw milk contains a large number of bacteria 
will be seen from the following table ([Rogers^^) : 

TABLE XIV. 

Average 'Number of Bacteria 'per Cubic Centimeter in all 

Samples Under Each Treatment. 



Description and treat- 
ment of sample. 



Raw milk kept at 20° 0_- 
Pasteurized milk kept at 

20° O -_ 

Raw milk kept at 10° O— 
Pasteurized milk kept at 

10° O 



Number of bacteria after the lapse of- 



hours 



13,522,331 

245 
17,640,428 

245 



hours 



74,142,857 

426 
31,457,833 



12 hours 24 hours 



247,651,250 457,910,714 



6,028 1,501,335 
124,783,928 



38,406,785 
378 



1,026 



48 hours 



608,079,166 



320,337,388 
254,678,542 



15,119 



72 hours 



568,718,500 



236,941,250 
308,041,666 



2,462,492 



96 hours 



975,500,000 
562,650,000 

37,088,456 



237. Results of continuous pasteurization of milk 
at 14Q° to 160° F., or 60° to 63° centigrade. (Dean 
and Harrison.^^) 

TABLE XV. 

Thirteen Tests, Percentage of Bacteria Killed, 9642. 











Unpasteurized 


Pasteurized 






Tempera- 
ture of 










Pasteuriz- 




Average No. 


Average No. 


Date 


ing tem- 


milk before 


Acidity 


of germs 


of germs 




perature 


pasteurizing 




per e. c. 


per c. c. 


April 10 


146 


54 


.15 


8,090,000 


243,600 


" 12 


140 


52 


.16 


3,736,000 


235,000 


" 15 


142 


54 


.18 


3,705,000 


243,500 


May 1 


144 


58 


.15 


8,786,000 


557,000 


" 4 


140 


58 


.17 


13,400,000 


367,000 


" 18 


140 


61 


.19 


14,510,000 


837,000 


" 21 


140 


61 


.17 


38,380,000 


800,000 


" 27 


140 


58 


.17 


16,250,000 


667,000 


" 29 


140 


60 


.17 


17,000,000 


650,000 


June 3 


140 


60 


.17 


15,670,000 


720,000 


" 6 


140 


58 


.16 


15,723,000 


672,000 


« 8 


140 


60 


.17 


22,840,000 


812,000 


Aug. 5 


140 







51,900,000 


1,400,000 



Tables Nos. XV and XVI taken from Ontario Bulletin No. 117. 



" Rogers, L. A. U. S. Bulletin No. 73. Page 28. 

" Dean and Harrison, Ontario Bulletin, No. 117. Pages 11-12, 



PASTEURIZATION. 



187 



Results of Continuous Pasteurization of Milk at 160- 
165° F. (71-74 c.) 

TABLE XVI. 

Twenty Tests, Percentage of Bacteria Killed, 99.95. 











Unpasteurized 


Pasteurized 






Tempera- 
















Pasteuriz- 


ture of 




Average 


Average 


Date 


ing tem- 


milk before 


Acidity 


germs 


germs 




perature 


pasteurizing 




per c. c. 


per c. c. 


Mar. 29 


160 


53 


.15 


507,600 


510 


April 1 


160 


46 


.16 


1,402,100 


8,950 


« 3 


164 


52 


.15 


288,000 


510 


" 6 


160 


54 


.16 


2,784,000 


410 


" 8 


160 


53 


.15 


7,040,000 


9,025 


" 10 


160 


54 


.15 


8,090,000 


650 


" 17 


160 


56 


.19 


9,090,000 


2,300 


" 19 


160 


46 


.17 


1,820,000 


93,800 


" 29 


165 


60 


.21 


25,100,000 


11,420 


May 1 


im 


58 


.15 


8,736,000 


23,250 


" 15 


165 


60 


.19 


4,050,000 


15,700 



238. The growth of bacteria in milk. 

The increase of the bacteria in milk depends mostly 
upon the temperature at which it is kept during the 
first few hours after it is drawn. According to Gro- 
tenfelt's ''Modern Dairy Practice" we find that 
Cropf and Eiserich in Munich found 60,000 to 100,000 
bacteria per cubic centimeter in milk shortly after 
it had been drawn. This sample was kept in a cellar 
at a temperature of 12.5 degrees C. (56.5 degrees P.) 
After two hours the bacterial content was four times 
as great as at first; after three hours it was eight 
times as great; after five hours it was twenty-six 
times as great, and after six hours it was 1,803 times 
as great. Another portion of this milk was held at 
35 degrees C. (95° F.) in an incubator and the bac- 
teria originally present multiplied twenty-three times 
in two hours ; 215 times in four hours ; 803 times in 
five hours and 3,800 times in six hours. The develop- 
ment of the bacteria in the milk kept in ice during 



188 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

the same period of time was so slight as to be almost 
imperceptible. This is a striking illustration of the 
development of germs under different temperatures. 
When we consider that one germ often reproduces 
itself every twenty minutes it is not surprising that 
milk or cream can become bad so quickly. 

239. Care and cleanliness. It is obvious that the 
bacterial content of the milk is greatly affected by 
various methods of handling and that there is a close 
relationship between the bacterial content of the 
milk and the different fermentations which manifest 
themselves from time to time. In our efforts to in- 
sure a good-keeping article we are impressed with 
the need of having the utmost care exercised in the 
handling of milk before it is received at the factory 
or central plant. But unfortunately we sometimes 
fail to recognize or to remember that after the milk 
arrives at the central plant it still needs to be care- 
fully and intelligently handled. Not only should 
milk be heated to a high enough temperature to de- 
stroy undesirable germs, but the temperature should 
be uniform, and must be maintained for a sufficient 
length of time to insure the destruction of those 
germs. It must also be borne in mind that the 
temperature must not be so high as to impart a per- 
manent cooked flavor to the product. 

It is to be deplored that cleanliness, that all-im- 
portant factor in the handling of milk, is so often 
neglected at the factory or milk depot. When this 
is the case all the care which has previously been 
bestowed upon the milk is practically undone. Otto 
F. Hunziker, of the Dairy Division of Cornell Uni- 
versity, in a recent bulletin on ''The Handling and 



PASTEURIZATION. 189 

Care of Milk, ' ' says : ' ' The greater attention paid to 
scrupulous cleanliness in handling milk at all stages, 
the shorter time that elapses between the draw- 
ing, straining, and cooling of the milk, and the 
lower the temperature to which it is cooled, the 
greater will be its freedom from micro-organisms; 
the longer it will retain its normal condition; the 
more profitable its production will be and the more 
wholesome will it be for old and young." In these 
few words we find the secret of success in handling 
milk and cream. 

240. Clarification and separation. When a large 
quantity of milk is handled at one plant for city 
supply and shipped or hauled to the plant for a 
considerable distance, it is of the utmost importance 
if the milk is not very clean, that it be clarified. 
By clarification I mean that the milk is to be sep- 
arated and milk and cream run together again before 
it is used. This should be done whether the milk 
is to be pasteurized or not. After clarification it 
should be immediately cooled to as low a temperature 
as possible unless it is to be pasteurized at once. It 
has been ascertained that in the process of separation 
a large number of tubercle bacilli and lactic germs 
are deposited in the separator slime. Grotenfelt in 
his * * Modern Dairy Practice ' ' says : * ' I have verified 
in numerous trials that a large number of the bac- 
teria present in milk were removed from the cream 
and skim milk by the centrifugal force and went into 
the separator slime." 

241. The grading of milk. In order that a uniform 
grade of milk be placed upon the market it is neces- 
sary to select by an acid test all milk that may indi- 



190 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

cate an excess of .2 per cent acidity. This can very 
easily be accomplished by using the ''Rapid Method" 
(par. 48.), devised by Prof. E. H. Farrington, who 
is at the head of the University of Wisconsin Dairy 
School. Anyone who is at all dextrous can very 
rapidly select or grade milk as received at the milk 
depot. The rapid method is simple, accurate and 
inexpensive, and is used with great success at the 
Wisconsin Dairy School. 

Because the sweeter milk is selected for the market 
it is possible that when a large percentage of the 
milk shows more than .2 per cent acidity and is re- 
jected, that the test of the milk sold may show a 
rather low fat content. The reason of this is that 
evening milk is usually richer in fat than morning 
milk and it is usually the latter which shows more 
than .2 per cent acidity. According to Richmond 
(Richmond") the composition of milk varies greatly 
in fat content. He says: ''The average fat content 
of morning milk was 3.52 per cent and of evening 
milk 3.96 per cent in 15,910 samples.'' 

242. Variations in the test of individual cows and 
herds. 

There is a difference in the average test of a herd 
from year to year as well as in the test of individual 
cows. The test of individual cows may vary con- 
siderably from day to day as well as the total pro- 
duction of fat per day. In order to make this vari- 
ation more clear, the following table is given, which 
shows the age of cows, the average per cent of fat 
in milk and the range of variation in milk from indi- 
vidual cows. 

** Richmond, H. D. Analyst, pajre 30, 1905. No. 355, parasraphs 325-329. 



PASTEUEIZATION. 191 

243. Table XVII, showing the variation in the test 
of milk from individual cows. (WoU and Harris.^^) 

TABLE XVII. 
Showing the Variation in the Test of Milk From Individ- 





ual Cows: (WoU and Harris^^ 


.) 


Age 

of 

Cow 


Days 

in 
milk 


Per cent fat 


Pat per day 


Average 


Range 


Range 


Y.M.D. 










8—10—19 


37 


3.27 


2.3 -4.2 


2.847—3.426 


9— 1—20 


6 


5.57 


3.65—8.48 


3.211—3.821 


7—10—22 


49 


3.71 


2.65—4.8 


2.677—3.199 


8— 1—19 


15 


3.92 


3.18—4.98 


2.495—2.864 


8— 4—10 


24 


3.40 


2.8 -4.08 


2.422—3.087 


6— 9—12 


12 


3.49 


2.95—3.88 


2.501—3.069 


6- 9-12 


20 


3.33 


2.8 ^.0 


2.933—3.320 


7_ i_25 


11 


4.29 


3.35—5.0 


2.422—2.861 


5—11—15 


4 


5.02 


3.45_6.0 


3.479-4.045 


5_11_ 6 


33 


3.51 


2.58-4.2 


2.829-3.500 


5- 7-18 


26 


3.96 


3.18—4.53 


2.536—2.794 


5—10—19 


19 


3.69 


2.9 —5.5 


3.020—3.347 


5— 0—29 


6 


5.13 


3.9 _6.45 


2.969—3.447 


5—0—15 


19 


3.91 


3.1 —5.2 


2.891—3.172 


6—10—9 


20 


3.94 


2.3 —6.45 


2.422^.045 


6—11—28 


26 


3.58 


1.6 —8.48 


1.464-4.045 


4—4—8 


69 


3.50 


2.8 -^.85 


2.034—2.691 


4—0—4 


13 


3.83 


3.13-4.53 


2.271—2.392 


4— 2—28 


17 


3.80 


2.7 —4.55 


2.574-3.034 


4—0—29 


4 


3.38 


2.7 —4.4 


2.204—2.535 


4—2—2 


26 


3.63 


2.7 —4.85 


2.094—3.034 


4— 3—16 


24 


3.52 


1.5 —6.15 


1.225-3.034 


3— 5— 1 


29 


3.37 


2.4 —4.83 


2.000—2.865 


3— 7—4 


11 


3.92 


3.0 -^.65 


2.538—2.740 


3— 7—14 


53 


3.53 


2.65—4.23 


1.979—2.261 


3—11—14 


18 


3.53 


2.6-4.53 


2.579—3.137 


3—11—8 


33 


3.48 


2.8 -4.3 


1.983—2.331 


3—4—23 


8 


3.64 


3.33—3.95 


2.140—2.288 


3-3-18 


7 


3.72 


3.3 —4.2 


2.059—2.274 


3- 1-28 


17 


3.56 


2.9 -4.55 


2.318-2.769 


3—2—28 


19 


3.64 


2.6 —4.43 


1.946-2.201 


3—4—28 


4 


3.80 


2.6 —5.58 


2.032-2.496 


3— 2—21 


15 


3.44 


2.8 —4.3 


1.896—2.121 


3-0-19 


6 


4.02 


3.0 —5.78 


2.057—2.188 



WoU and Harris, Wisconsin Station. Bulletin No. 172. 



192 



MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 



244. Variation in the per cent of fat in cow's milk 
duringf the entire period of lactation. 

TABLE XVIII. * 
Variation in the Per Cent of Fat in Cows' Milk During the 
Entire Period of Lactation. 



No. of 


Range in 


No. of 


Range in 


Oow 


Per cent of fat 


Cow 


Per cent of fat 




Lowest 


Highest 




Lowest 


Highest 


1 


2.621% 


4.698% 


10 


2.464% 


6.00 % 


2 


2.160% 


3.404% 


11 


2.741%) 


4.649% 


3 







12 


2.509% 


5.505% 


4 


2.163% 


3.965% 


13 


2.645% 


4.724% 


5 


2.543% 


3.900% 


14 


2.097% 


4.173% 


6 


2.096% 


3.446% 


15 


2.437% 


4.234% 


7 


2.257% 


3.837% 


16 


2.326% 


4.637% 


8 


2.690% 


4.117% 


17 







9 


2.566% 


4.709% 


18 


2.537% 


4.390% 



245. A standard temperature for pasteurization. 

The main question in pasteurization is: What is 
the best temperature at which to pasteurize milk or 
cream? Another important matter in connection 
with this subject is the length of time the milk or 
cream should be exposed to a given temperature 
in order not to injure its quality, and yet destroy 
the tubercle bacilli. When the tubercle baccilli are 
destroyed we feel sure that all other harmful germs 
are also destroyed. This can be accomplished in 
either of two ways: First, by short exposure to a 
temperature of 180° P. to 190° F. Second, by hold- 
ing the milk or cream at a temperature of 140° F. to 
160° F. for some length of time. I believe we are 
safe in using the following temperature and time : 

* Table XVIII was translated by Leonard Pearson, (C. O. Jensen 
Milk Hygiene.) 



PASTEUEIZATION. 193 

Temperature. Hold for.Temperature. Hold for. 

140^^ F 30 min. 160° F 10 min. 

145° F 25 min. 170° F 5 min. 

150° F 20 min. 180° F 2 min. 

155° F 15 min. 190° F 1 min. 

The temperatures employed under commercial con- 
ditions must necessarily be a little higher than the 
temperatures used under laboratory conditions and 
expert supervision. If we were to use laboratory 
temperature under commercial conditions the results 
might not always be satisfactory. 

246. Jensen and Platnner come to the conclusion 
that in order to preserve the properties of raw milk, 
which is especially desirable in infant feeding, the 
''heating should not be continued fur several hours 
at 60° C. or 140° F. nor exceed for a single instant 
70° C. or 158° F. The temperature should not exceed 
that necessary for destroying pathogenic bacteria, 
more particularly the tubercle bacillus for which heat- 
ing for 20 minutes at 60° C. or 140° F. is sufficient," 
as found by Smith; and 5 minutes at 65° C. or 149° 
F. as found by Bang and Strebolt. These authors 
(Jensen and Platnner^*^) also recommend the home 
pasteurization of milk for infant feeding. It would 
seem, however, that since the average housewife is 
not sufficiently educated along this line that it would 
be safer for her to buy properly pasteurized milk 
from some responsible city milk dealer. I believe that 
the pasteurization of milk can be more efficiently 
performed by a high class city milk plant than by the 
average housewife. 

^® Jensen and Platnner. American Agricultural Suisse, 6, 1905, No. 6, 
pages 205-228, etc. 
13 



194 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

247. Intermittent system of pasteurization. 

When we speak of the intermittent system of pas- 
teurizing, we mean that the milk or cream to be pas- 
teurized is all placed in a machine or tank and all 
heated at one time to the desired temperature and 
held at this temperature for the required length of 
time. When the milk has been held heated for a 
sufficient length of time it is cooled, and then bottled 
direct from the pasteurizer by a sanitary bottling 
apparatus. 

248. The disadvantage of this system is that where 
a large quantity of milk or cream is to be handled, 
the expense of handling it is greater than when the 
continuous or semi-continuous pasteurizer is used. 
The main cause of additional expense in using 
the intermittent system of pasteurizing is that 
it requires a greater length of time to pasteur- 
ize a large quantity of milk as well as ad- 
ditional machinery, where great quantities are 
handled. One great advantage that this system has 
over all others is that perfect pasteurization is more 
easily accomplished. The cream line, which the 
American people like to see on milk, can more easily 
be retained when the intermittent system of pas- 
teurizing is used, because the milk need not be heated 
above 150° F. in order to destroy the tubercle bacil- 
lus. 

In case milk is separated and the cream run into 
a discontinuous pasteurizing apparatus, it should be 
heated to about 130° F. and kept at this temperature 
until all the cream is in the machine. It should then 
all be heated to the desired temperature for pasteuriz- 



PASTEURIZATION. 195 

ing. This is necessary because cream fresh from the 
separator sours very quickly unless it is cooled to 
about 50° F. or heated to about 135° F. During the 
heating of the cream as well as during the time the 
milk or cream is held hot, it should be kept in motion 
except for very short periods of time. We know that 
the efficiency of work done depends primarily upon 
the degree, duration and uniformity of heat applied. 
By the use of the intermittent system of pasteurizing 
the milk or cream may acquire a slightly cooked 
flavor even though it is heated to only 140° F., but 
this will disappear within twenty-four hours, es- 
pecially if the milk or cream is cooled rapidly. 

24&. Continuous pasteurizers. These pasteurizers 
are very generally used in creameries for the pas- 
teurization of cream for butter making on account 
of the relatively high acid in the cream ; and up to 
the present time this type of pasteurizer is also used 
to a great extent for the handling of milk for city 
supply. 

The advantage of this type of machine is that a 
large amount of milk or cream can be cheaply hand- 
led. The cooling can be accomplished quickly, thus 
retarding the development of any bacteria which may 
have escaped destruction. Great care must be exer- 
cised in applying proper temperatures and in guard- 
ing against running the machine above its tested 
capacity. 

250. Semi-Continuous pasteurizers. It is only re- 
cently that holding devices as an adjunct to continu- 
ous pasteurizers have been put upon the market. This 
holding apparatus serves a very necessary purpose 



196 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

in increasing the efficiency of the machine. The milk 
or cream can be pasteurized at lower temperatures 
and the same results obtained as with high tempera- 
tures. 

251. Cleaning pasteurizers. After pasteurizing, the 
machine should be cooled by running water through 
it and when sufficiently cooled, a solution made with 
some good cleaning powder and water should be run 
into the heating chamber to dissolve and loosen the 
milk which may be cooked onto it. This should be 
allowed to stand in the machine for some time, and 
the machine should then be scrubbed with a stiff 
brush. Be very careful about using sulphuric acid 
on the pasteurizer, because if the solution is too 
strong it will corrode the tin and cause it to wear off 
in a short time. Strong lye will also take off the tin 
and it should be very sparingly used. 

Milk or cream will not easily burn onto the pas- 
teurizer if the heating chamber is first filled, and then 
slowly heated to the desired temperature, or if it 
is heated very slowly while the chamber is being 
filled. Always guard against running the pasteurizer 
empty, with full steam pressure on. 

252. Prejudice against pasteurized milk and cream. 
Were it not for the fact that the average consumer 

wants to see a well defined cream liae on bottled milk, 
pasteurization would be more generally practiced. 
This opposition has led to the construction of ma- 
chinery which will handle milk or cream with the 
greatest efficiency at the lowest temperature. The 
slightly cooked flavor which some pasteurized milk 
has, is not relished by consumers and more or less 



PASTEURIZATION. 197 

objection has been raised to it. As soon as the con- 
sumer learns that the keeping quality of the milk 
and cream is increased by pasteurization, it will 
become general. 

253. Sources of bacteria in milk. 

TABLE XX. 

Element of Contamination Bacteria 

1 Tnfn.tinn^^^^sh Milk 6,600 per c.c. 

1. Anietiioiij^l^gy pgggjjjg ^j^.Q^gjj g ^ggggjg 97,600 per c.c. 

2 Bodily Cleanliness^^i^l^ from clean cows. 20,600 per c.c. 

I Milk from dirty cows. 170,000 per c.c. 

fPeat 2,000,000 per gramme 

3. Litter-j Good straw 7,500,000 per gramme 

[Bad straw 10,000,000 per gramme 

4. Influence of litter in num-JWith peat litter.. .3,500 per c.c. 

ber of bacteria in milk. | With straw litter .7,330 per c.c. 

5. Ford. Dust of (Oil cake 457,500 per gramme 

in the manger (Bran 1,361,900 per gramme 

fMilked dry 5,600 per c.c. 

[Milked wet 9,000 per c.c. 

6. Milking-} First milk 10,400 per c.c. 

Last milk Sterile. 

Washed udder 2,200 per c.c. 

.Unwashed udder 3,800 per c.c. 

fEnamelled vessels 1,105 per c.c. 

7. Vessels^Tin vessels 1,690 per c.c. 

LWooden vessels 279,000 per c.c. 

». ueansmg vessels ^gj^^p^y ^j^g^^ 28,600 per c.c. 

Table XX, C. O. Jensen, Milk Hygiene. 

254. Epidemics caused by raw milk. If dairymen 
and milk dealers really understood what cleanliness 
in the production of milk means, and would employ 
proper methods of pasteurization, epidemics which 
are directly traceable to infected milk might be 
averted. In Europe epidemics which were traced 



198 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

to the consumption of infected milk occurred in Mac- 
clesfield, Wimbledon, Yorktown, Camberly, Canter- 
bury, Bristol, Clifton, London, Barrowford, Fallow- 
field and Oxford. In America epidemics of this kind 
occurred at Iowa State College, Norwood, Salem, 
Adams, Elkton, Providence, Buffalo, Sommerville, 
Springfield, Port Jarvis, etc. 

We cannot cite an instance where pasteurization 
has created any trouble of this nature, and nothing 
can be shown to prove that pasteurization should 
be dispensed with. From records now available we 
find there is great discomfort to people, as well as 
disease and death resulting from the consumption 
of raw milk and its products. A great source of in- 
fection of milk comes from the handling of it by 
persons affected with contagious diseases. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE 
IN BUTTER 



It (Wisconsin High Pressure Oven) has 
proved to be well adapted to the purpose 
for which it is intended, and the results 
obtained by its use are accurate. 

E. H. Farrington. 



INDEX TO CHAPTER XIII. 



Par. Page 

250. Introduction of moisture testing devices 201 

256. Necessary apparatus 201 

257. Making the test 202 

(a) Preparing samples 202 

(b) Making a churn test 202 

(c) Making tub test 203 

(d) Making print test 203 

258. Methods in some creameries not up to standard 203 

259. How to treat cups and pans 204 

260. Testing leaky or slushy butter 205 

261. Testing butter by Babcock test _ 206 

262. Number ot grams of butter necessary 210 

263. Table XX., comparing two methods of testing but- 

ter for moisture 212 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Determination of Moisture in Butter. 

255. Some creamery operators have increased the 
per cent of moisture in butter to such an extent that 
the production of good bodied butter was impossible ; 
and since they sold the excess of water at butter 
prices it became necessary for the federal govern- 
ment to put a stop to this practice by limiting the 
per cent of moisture to 15.9 per cent. 

It is due to this regulation that devices for testing 
butter for moisture have come into use, and within the 
last few years several different moisture tests have 
been placed upon the market. Information regarding 
these tests, with directions for their use and sugges- 
tions regarding the taking of samples, are furnished 
free upon application to creamery supply houses men- 
tioned in the chapter on information in the back of 
book. 

256. Necessary apparatus for determining mois- 
ture in butter. 

Apparatus necessary for testing moisture in butter 
is as follows : 

1. A correct and sensitive scale. 

2. A butter trier, spatula or knife. 

3. Cups or pans according to the kind of moisture 
testing apparatus used. 

4. A moisture testing apparatus. Farrington 
High Pressure, Ames or iGray's. 

5. A cup or wide mouthed jar for preparing com- 
posite samples. 

201 



202 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

All that is needed in addition to the above is a 
person who is very careful in handling all processes 
connected with the determining of moisture. The 
results should come within Y^ to ll^ per cent of the 
actual per cent of moisture in the butter. 

257. Making the moisture test. 

(a). Preparing samples. When a churn test is 
desired, take a butter trier and take a small 
sample from each trierful taken from four or 
five different places in the column of butter in the 
churn. Be sure to take samples from both ends and 
the middle of the column. When a knife or spatula 
is used, remove the surface of the butter, take a few 
grams, place the sample in a cup or glass and add to 
it other small samples taken from four or five places 
in the butter column. This constitutes the composite 
sample, from which ten or fifteen grams should be 
taken, weighed and tested according to the directions 
for whatever moisture test is being used. Before 
taking a sample for testing from the composite 
sample, place the cup containing the composite 
sample in water of a temperature of 98° to 100° F. 
and stir continually until the sample has reached a 
soft, smooth consistency. When this stage is reached 
remove the cup at once from the warm water, bal- 
ance your scales carefully and weigh out ten or fif- 
teen grams as desired. 

(b) When making a churn test and the sample is 
to be taken from the tubs or boxes just packed, take 
a knife or spatula and take a small piece of butter 
from each tub or box and proceed as indicated for 
the handling of the composite churn sample. 



TESTING FOR MOISTUEE. 203 

(c) When making a tub test when butter is three 
or more days old and is hard, use a trier of a length 
sufficient to pass through the entire length of the 
tub or package. Pass the trier into the butter and 
take a few grams of butter from four different places 
on the trier and place in a cup or screw top glass jar. 
If there are a number of tubs from the same churning 
take samples from another tub or two and proceed 
as before directed. The results should check up with- 
in l^ to ll^ per cent of the actual moisture in thQ 
butter. 

(d) When making a print butter test it is well 
to take a trier and take a full length plug from a 
print. From this take a small piece and repeat this 
with several prints, or cut a print in two and take 
a thin slice across it at the cut. Repeat this with 
several prints and handle these samples as previously 
indicated. 

258. Methods used in creameries for the determi- 
nation of moisture in butter are not up to the desired 
standard. In my travels among creameries as well 
as through information gained by correspondence 
regarding methods used in making moisture determi- 
nations, I found that methods employed in taking 
samples for making moisture determinations as well 
as the handling of the different processes connected 
with the testing were not what they should be. As 
a rule the fault was not in not knowing how to take a 
fair average sample, but rather in the lack of care 
and attention to the detail part of the work. For 
instance : 

1. Not balancing the scales properly. 



204 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

2. Not accurately weighing the number of grams 
of butter used for making the test ; that is, having it 
a trifle over or under weight. 

3. Not drying the cups or pans in which the 
butter was weighed. 

4. Not accurately weighing the sample after the 
moisture is all expelled. 

5. Weighing the sample when hot from the oven 
or flame, or letting the sample stand too long cold 
before weighing. 

6. Not taking into consideration the fact that 
when butter spatters over the beaker when direct 
flame is used, that the results are greatly affected. 

7. Using poor beakers, with a rough surface or 
a handle soldered onto the side, allowing moisture 
and dirt to adhere to it. 

8. Not carefully solidifying liquified samples of 
butter before weighing out samples for testing. 

9. Using old, heavy operating cream scales in- 
stead of the Torsion Balance ; No. 4,000 or No. 1,600 
or any high grade druggist scale. 

10. Forgetting that when a little bit of butter is 
taken from the surface of the butter column in the 
churn, the result is usually too high, and hardly ever 
represents the true per cent of moisture. 

259. How to prepare the cups and pans used in 
testing for moisture. 

All cups, pans or utensils into which samples are to 
be put for testing should be heated before the 
samples are put into them. This is done to expel 
any moisture which might adhere to these vessels. 
If it is not done, and a little moisture adheres to 



TESTING FOB MOISTURE. 205 

cup or pan and is weighed with the sample of butter, 
the result will show a higher per cent of moisture 
than the butter actually contains. I have found that 
by neglecting to dry the vessels into which the 
samples are weighed, and by not having the plates 
on the scale, on which the pans were placed, 
perfectly clean and dry, a difference of 2.5 
per cent in the actual per cent of moisture 
was the result. In one creamery a rickety 
old scale was used and the result was 8 per 
cent too low. That is, the result obtained when 
the sample was not correctly weighed was 12 per 
cent moisture. When the sample was weighed on 
an accurate scale, the actual moisture contents was 
found to be 20 per cent. When the scale is clean, 
accurate and well balanced, the cups or pans heated 
before the butter is weighed into them, the sample 
accurately taken and correctly weighed, the moisture 
all expelled, the sample again accurately weighed 
and the mathematical calculations properly per- 
formed, the result will be very close to the actual 
per cent of moisture in the butter. 

260. Testing leaky or slushy butter for moisture. 

It is very hard to test this kind of butter satisfac- 
torily on account of the presence of much loose water 
as well as considerable water being held in large 
pockets throughout the butter. When sampling this 
kind of butter it is well to take more samples from 
different parts of the tub or churn than are taken 
when well made butter is tested. When this kind 
of butter is hard, a great deal of water may drip 
off of the trier and the sample may show results 



206 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

much too low in the per cent of moisture. In such 
a case it is safer to make two tests of the same lot 
of butter, as the result of two tests is a truer indi- 
cation of the actual moisture present. 

261. Testing butter for butter fat by the Babcock 
test, and from results, computing the approxi- 
mate moisture content. Experience has taught 
that moisture cannot be accurately computed by 
knowing the approximate per cent of fat in 
butter. The per cent of salt in butter varies 
too much for this to be a reliable test. It 
would be impossible to make an accurate guess as 
to the per cent of salt in butter, and to test for 
salt as well as for butter fat would take more time 
than it would take to make a moisture test. Even 
the use of the Babcock test for determining the per 
cent of butter fat in butter is not to be recommended 
due to errors arising from various sources. This is 
fully explained in the following by Prof. E. H. Far- 
rington, Hoard's Dairyman, July 1, 1910: 

"Among the various factors which make these re- 
sults uncertain are the following: 

1. Taking a fair sample of butter. 

2. Accurate weighing of the butter into the test 
bottle. 

3. The high per cent of fat in butter which makes 
errors in reading the length of the fat column due 
to changes in temperature much greater than in milk. 

4. The difficulties in getting the fat free from 
water when it is measured in the neck of the test 
bottles. 

The effect of these various errors of analysis is five 



TESTING FOE MOISTURE. 207 

times as great on the fat as it is on the water deter- 
mination in butter when butter contains 80 per cent 
fat and 16 per cent water, and the effect of these 
errors is twenty times as great for butter testing as 
it is for milk testing when the latter contains 4.0 per 
cent fat. 

The errors which may occur in weighing the 
sample of butter for testing is multiplied by the 
ratio between the weight taken and 100. If an error 
of one-tenth gram is made in weighing 10 grams of 
butter, this one-tenth gram is one-tenth per cent of 
100, but it is 1 per cent of 10 grams ; and 80 per cent 
of this 1 per cent falls on the butter fat, while only 
5 per cent of it would fall on a milk testing 4 per 
cent fat. 

The actual effect which an error of one-tenth gram 
in weighing out the butter will have on the final 
results may be seen by the following illustration : If 
instead of ten grams only 9.9 grams of butter are 
weighed into a test bottle, after which the test is 
completed and the reading of the fat in the neck of 
the test bottle is found to be 45. This reading mul- 
tiplied by 18 gives 810, which divided by 10 grams 
of butter gives 81 per cent fat in the sample test. If, 
however, an error of one-tenth gram is made in 
weighing, and the product of 45x18 or 810 is divided 
by 9.9 grams, then the result is 81.8 per cent fat. 

The variation of one-tenth gram in weighing the 
sample of butter into the test bottle has made an 
error of .8 per cent fat in the final result. 

If this same error of one-tenth gram is made 
in weighing six, instead of ten grams of butter 



208 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

into a test bottle, and the test of the butter 
is made in cream test bottles reading to 30 
or 40 per cent, the effect of this small error 
is much greater. Suppose the reading of fat 
from the six grams of butter is 28; this mul- 
tiplied by 18 gives 504, which divided by six 
(the weight of butter taken) gives 84 as the per 
cent of fat in the sample tested. If, however, the 
reading 28 multiplied by 18 or 504 is divided by 5.9 
instead of six, then the result is 85.4, 

This shows a difference of 1.4 per cent fat between 
the result obtained when the weight of butter is 
taken as six grams and when it is 5.9 grams. 

If this same error of one-tenth gram is made in 
weighing the butter for a water determination, the 
effect of the error on the final result will be much 
less as is seen by the following figures : If ten grams 
of butter are weighed for a water determination, and 
the loss of weight by drying is 1.6 grams, then this 
loss is 16 per cent of the ten grams of butter weighed 
out. If an error of one-tenth gram was made in 
weighing the butter then the loss, or 1.6 grams di- 
vided by 9.9 grams instead of ten grams of butter 
gives a percentage of 16.1 per cent water in the 
sample tested. In this case there is a difference in 
the final result of only one-fortieth per cent when 
an error of one-tenth gram was made in weighing 
the butter. 

Butter makers in creameries do not often make 
weighings closer than 1-10 gram on the scales they 
use and many of these scales are not sufficiently sen- 
sitive to weigh as fine as 1-10 gram. They will, 



TESTING FOR MOISTURE. 209 

therefore, have difficulty in getting duplicate tests 
of the same sample of butter to agree much closer 
than 1.0 per cent fat, simply because of the effect 
of this one source of error which is introduced when 
weighing the butter for testing. 

Another point in testing butter for fat by the 
Babcock test, that will have a great effect on the 
final results, is the temperature of the fat column 
when it is measured. The extent to which the fat 
column will change with the increase or decrease in 
temperature is shown by the following figures: 

The expansion of fat by a change of 40 degrees 
in temperature amounts to .07 per cent fat in milk 
testing 5 per cent fat; that is, if a milk testing 5 
per cent fat is read at 110° F. the reading will be 
5.07 per cent fat when the temperature is raised to 
140° F. 

This same effect of expansion on the test of butter 
containing 80 per cent fat will be 16 times more, 
or .07X16 equals 1.12 per cent fat, which will be the 
difference in the reading of the butter fat test at 
110° and 140° F. Or, if the fat test of a sample of 
butter when read at 110 is 80 per cent fat, the same 
sample read at 140° F. will be 81.12 per cent fat. 

All the other errors of manipulation in testing 
butter by the Babcock test, such as determining the 
point of reading the top and bottom of the fat col- 
umn, loss of moisture and of the butter when it is 
being weighed into the test bottles, and other me- 
chanical losses, are at least five times as great for 
a fat as for a water determination in butter, and 20 

14 



210 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

times as great for butter as for milk testing 4 per 
cent fat. 

The errors all come on the amount of the substance 
tested and 80 per cent of this error falls on the fat, 
while only 16 per cent of it falls on the water in but- 
ter and 4.0 per cent of the error would fall on the 
fat in milk testing 4.0 per cent fat. 

After understanding the full effect of all the errors 
of analyses, as well as the difficulty of weighing 
butter into test bottles, the necessity of using ex- 
treme care in every manipulation and in keeping the 
scales and glassware in a most sensitive and accurate 
condition, one must not expect to use the Babcock 
test for determining fat in butter with the same de- 
gree of accuracy as it is used in milk and cream 
testing. Duplicate results on the same sample of 
butter may not agree within 1 per cent of each other 
and the results obtained may easily be 2 per cent 
from the actual fat contained in the sample tests. 
All these variations and inaccuracies being due to 
the errors of analyses and the fact that the fat is 
such a large percentage of the butter. 

When fairly satisfactory results are obtained in 
testing butter by the Babcock test it is probable that 
the errors of one class have compensated for, or bal- 
anced the errors of another class in the opposite di- 
rection, but at the same time it is possible that all 
the errors may be in the same direction and thus 
increase the inaccuracies of the results. ' ' 

262. Number of grams of butter to use for mak- 
ing moisture determinations. By consulting the 
Dairy Arithmetic it will be seen that the smaller the 



TESTING FOB MOISTURE. 211 

basis npon which moisture determinations are based 
the greater is the per cent of error, caused by an 
error. It is not wise to weigh less than five grams 
of butter to be used for testing for moisture, and 
it is much more safe to use ten or fifteen grams of 
butter for this purpose. A slight error does not 
affect the result so much when fifteen grams are 
used as when only five grams are used, supposing 
the same error is made in each case. To illustrate : 
I. A lot of butter is weighed, and is supposed to 
weigh 850 lbs., but by some error in handling it 
weighs only 848 lbs. The loss in pounds here is 2 or 
in per cent is 2-^-850=.002353Xl00=.2353— or 
.23+ per cent. 

II. A lot of butter is weighed as 48 lbs. when the 
actual weight is 50 lbs. Here an error of 2 lbs. is 
made. Expressing the loss in per cent it will be 
2^50X100=4. per cent. 

A loss of 2 lbs. on 850 lbs. is .23+ per cent or .23 
of one pound on every hundred pounds. 

A loss of 2 lbs. on 50 lbs. is 4. per cent, or 4. lbs 
on every hundred pounds. By losing 2 pounds on 
every 50 lbs. the loss is 17.+ times as great as when 
the loss is 2 lbs. on every 850 lbs. This can be found 
by dividing the loss in per cent: 4.-^.2353 — ==.17 X 
100=17. or 850-^50=17. 

This shows that when an error is made in weigh- 
ing out only 2 grams the result obtained is increased 
enormously, while the same error made when 10 or 
15 grams are weighed out would be very small, and 
in many cases not noticeable in the results. 

The smaller the sample used for testing the great- 



212 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



er must be the care taken in its preparation and 
handling, as well as in calculating the result. The 
chances for error as indicated above are considered 
from the standpoint of practical creamery operations 
and not under expert laboratory conditions. 

263. Table No. XXI shows how closely the results 
obtained with the Wisconsin High Pressure Oven 
agree with official methods.* 

TABLE XXI. 

Per Cent Water in Butter Sctmples Found hy Using Both 

the High Pressure Oven Method and the 

Official Chemists' Method. 





Per cent water in butter 




Official chem- 
ists' method 


High-pressure 
oven method 


Sample No. 1 


13.05 
13.20 


13.1 




13.1 


Sample No. 2 


18.71 
18.92 


19.0 




19.1 


Sample No. 3 


20.89 
20.90 


21.0 




21.0 


Sample No. 4 


12.37 
12.25 


12.5 




12.45 


Sample No. 5 


18.77 
18.59 


18.4 




18.6 



Table XXI. — Per cent water in butter samples 
found by using both the high-pressure oven method 
and the official chemists' method. 

From these figures it appears that the results of 
duplicate analyses by the method here described 
agree as closely as do those obtained by the usual 
official chemical method. 

* Farrlntfton, E. H. Bui. 154. Wis Expt. Sta., 1907. 



BOOK 11. 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



INDEX TO BOOK 11. 
DAIRY ARITHMETIC 

Page 304 



CHAPTER I 
DAIRY ARITHMETIC 



A knowledge of the principles involved in 
arithmetical calculations pertaining to dairy- 
ing was never more needed than at present. 



CHAPTER I. 
Decimals — Notation and Numeration 

1. 1. A decimal, or a decimal fraction, is a fraction 
whose denominator is 10, 100, 1,000, etc. 

2. The denominator is always 10 or a multiple 
of 10, and is not expressed as in common fractions, 
by writing it under the numerator, with a line be- 

3 3 3 
tween them, as — , , . The denominator is 

10 100 1000 
always understood, the numerator consisting of the 
figures on the right of the unit figure of the number. 
In order to distinguish the unit figure, a period (.), 
called the decimal point, is placed between the unit 
figure and the next figure on the right. The decimal 
point may be regarded in two ways: First, as in- 
dicating that the number on the right is the numera- 
tor of a fraction whose denominator is 10, 100, 1,000, 
etc. ; and, second, as a part of the Arabic system of 
notation, each figure on the right being 10 times as 
large as the next succeeding figure, and 10 times 
as small as the next preceding figure, serving 
merely to point out the unit figure. 

3. The reading of a decimal depends upon the 
number of decimal places in it ; i. e., upon the num- 
ber of figures to the right of the unit figure. 

The first figure to the right of the unit figure 
expresses tenths. 

The second figure to the right of the unit ex- 
presses hundredths. 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATION. 217 

The third figure to the right of the unit figure 
expresses thousandths. 

The fourth figure to the right of the unit expresses 
ten-thousandths. 

The fifth figure to the right of the unit expresses 
hundred-thousandths. 

The sixth figure to the right of the unit figure 
expresses millionths. 

2. Table No. 1. The value of a decimal expressed 
in different ways. 

.3 = A-=3 tenths. 

10 

.03 = -5_=3 hundredths. 
100 

.003 = -A_=3 thousandths. 
1000 

.0003 = -^—=3 ten-thousandths. 
10000 

.00003 = — ^ — =3 hundred-thousandths. 
100000 

.000003= ^ =3 millionths. 

1000000 

The first figure to the right of the unit is called 
the first decimal place; the second figure, the sec- 
ond decimal place, etc. We see in the above that 
the number of decimal places in a decimal equals 
the number of ciphers to the right of the figure 1 
in the denominator of its equivalent fraction. This 
fact kept in mind will be of much assistance in read- 
ing and writing decimals. 



218 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

Whatever may be written to the left of a decimal 
point is a whole number. The decimal point affects 
only the figures to its right. 

When a whole number and decimal are written 
together the expression is a mixed number. Thus, 
8.12 and 17.25 are mixed numbers. 

The relation of decimals and whole numbers to 
each other is clearly shown by the following table: 

a Table No. II. 



^ s 



05 

I 



987 6 54321.123456789 
Whole numbers. Decimals. 

The figures to the left of the decimal point repre- 
sent whole numbers; those to the right are decimals 
(fractions written in decimal form). 

In both the decimals and whole numbers, the units 
place is made the starting point of notation and 
numeration. The decimals decrease on the scale of 
ten to the right, and the whole numbers increase on 
the scale of ten to the left. The first figure to the 
left of units is tens, and the first figure to the right 
of units is tenths. The second figure to the left of 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATION. 219 

units is hundreds, and the second figure to the right 
is hundredths. The third figure to the left is 
thousands, and the third to the right is thousandths, 
and so on. The figures equally distant from units 
place correspond in name, but the decimals have the 
ending ths, which distinguishes them from whole 
numbers. The following is the numeration of the 
number in the above table: nine hundred eighty- 
seven million, six hundred fifty-four thousand, three 
hundred twenty-one, and twenty-three million, four 
hundred fifty-six thousand, seven hundred eighty- 
nine hundred-millionths. 

The decimals increase to the left, on the scale of 
ten, the same as whole numbers; for, beginning at, 
say, 4 thousandths, in the table, the next figure to 
the left is hundredths, which is ten times as great, 
and the next tenths, or ten times the hundredths, 
and so on through both decimals and whole numbers. 

Principles of Decimals. 

4, The value of a decimal is not changed by an- 
nexing or rejecting a cipher to the right of the last 
figure. 

Explanation. 

(a). The decimal .8 equals i%, which reduced, 
equals %. 

(b). Adding one cipher we get .80, which equals 
80/100, which reduced, equals %. 

(c). Consequently, if both .8 and .80 can be re- 
duced to %, they are equal and adding a cipher has 
not changed the value. 



220 MODEBN BUTTER MAKING. 

II. A decimal is divided by ten by inserting a 
cipher between the decimal point (.) and the other 
figures to the right. 

Explanation. 

(a). The decimal .8 equals the proper fraction 3^, 
reduced (a) equals %. 

(b) . Inserting one cipher we get .08, which equals 
8/100, which equals (b) 4/50. Hence the fraction 
(a) (.8) is changed 10 times in value by inserting 
one cipher between the decimal point and 8 = .08. 

III. Similarly a decimal is multiplied by 10 by 
rejecting a cipher from the first place between the 
decimal point (.) and the other figures to the right. 

Explanation. 

(a). The decimal .08 equals the proper fraction 
8/100, which reduced equals 4/50. 

(b). Rejecting the cipher .08 equals .8, equals 
proper fraction 3^, which reduced equals %. 

The latter by taking out the cipher multiplies the 
decimal ten times. 

5. Multiplication of Decimals. A general rule for 
the multiplication of decimals. 

Rule. Place the multiplier under the multiple and 
disregarding the position of the decimal point, 
multiply as in whole numbers. In the product point 
off as many decimal places as there are decimal 
places in both the multiplier and multiplicand, pre- 
fixing ciphers if necessary. 



NOTATION? AND NUMERATION. 221 

6. Special rules for examples a, b, c and d. 

Rule for example (a). In (a) there are two deci- 
mal places in the multiplicand (the cipher does not 
count) and only one in the multiplier; hence 24-1= 
3 decimal places are to be pointed off in the product 
(disregarding the cipher (0) to the right of last 
figure not a cipher). 

Rule for example (b). In (b) there is no decimal 
place in the multiplicand, but four in the multiplier. 
Therefore 4 decimal places are pointed off in the 
product. 

Explanation and Solution of Problems (a) and (b). 

(a). Multiply .250 by .10 
Multiplicand .250 
Multiplier .10 

Product .025 Ans. 

(b). Multiply 258. by .0008 
Multiplicand 258. 
Multiplier .0008 

Product .2064 Ans. 

Rule for example (c). In (c) there are 3 decimal 
places in the multiplicand and none in the multi- 
plier, therefore 3 decimal places are to be pointed 
off in the product. 

Rule for example (d). In (d) there are 3 deci- 
mal places in the multiplicand and 2 in the multi- 
plier. Therefore 3+2'-=-5 decimal places are to be 
pointed off in the product. 



222 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



(c). Multiply .928 by 18. 
Multiplicand .928 
Multiplier 18. 





7424 










928 








Product 


16.704 Ans. 




(d). Multiply 2.101 by 1.28 








Multiplicand 2.101 








Multiplier 


1.28 
16808 
4202 
2101 








Product 


2.68928 Ans. 




7. Addition of decimals. 








Rule. Place the numbers to be added 


. so 


that the 


decimal points shall be directly 


under 


each other. 


Add as in whole 


5 numbers and 


place 


the 


decimal 


point in the sum 


directly under 


the decimal points 


above. 










Explanation and Solution. 






Decimals. 










.125 










.0004 










.0101 










.9256 










1.0611 Sum Ans. 




Mixed Decimals. 










100.25 










18.105 










1,000.240 










189.178 











1,307.773 Sum Ans. 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATION. 223 

Whole Numbers. 

284. 

278. 
1,001. 
1,810. 
3,373. Sum Ans. 

8. Subtraction of decimals. 

Rule. Place the subtrahend under the minuend 
so that the decimal points shall be in the vertical 
column. Subtract as in whole numbers and place the 
decimal point in the remainder directly under the 
decimal points above. 

Explanation and Solution. 

(a). Subtract .843 from 250.083 
Minuend 250.083 
Subtrahend .843 

Difference 249.240 Ans. 
(b). Find the difference between 8.262 and .925 
Minuend 8.262 
Subtrahend .925 



Difference 7.337 Ans. 
(c). Subtract 2001. from 4282. 
Minuend 4282. 
Subtrahend 2001, 



Difference 2281. Ans. 
(d). Subtract .9589 from 1. 
Minuend 1.0000 
Subtrahend .9589 



Difference .0411 Ans. 



224 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

When there are more decimal places in the sub- 
trahend than in the minuend place ciphers in the 
minuend above them and subtract as before. 

9. Division of decimals. In this process we do not 
pay any attention to the decimal point until the 
division is performed, but divide exactly as in whole 
numbers. "When divisor contains more decimal 
places than the dividend annex ciphers to the divi- 
dend until the number of decimal places in the divi- 
dend equals the number of decimal places in the 
divisor before dividing. Now subtract the number 
of decimal places in the divisor from the number of 
decimal places in the dividend and point off as many 
places in the quotient as there are units in the re- 
mainder, as shown in the solution of the following 
examples : 

10. Examples for illustration. 

(a). Divide .840 by 30. 
(1) (2) (3) 
30.).840(.028 Ans. 
60 



240 
240 


(1) Divisor. 

(2) Dividend. 

(3) Quotient. 



In this example it was necessary to prefix only 
one cipher to 28 (or quotient), because there are 



NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 225 

only 3 decimal places in the dividend and none in 
the divisor. 

(b). Divide .00076 by 1.52 

(1) (2) (3) 

1.52).000760(.0005 Quotient Ans. 
760 

In this example one cipher was annexed to the 
dividend (2) in order that 1.52 could be divided in- 
to 76. Now we have 6 decimal places instead of 5 

(2)(1) 
in the dividend, leaving 6 — 2=4 decimal places to 
be pointed off in the quotient. 

(c). Divide 12.336 by .08 
.08)12.336(154.2 

8 

43" 
40 

~33 

32 

, "16 
16 

This example contains more decimal places in the 
dividend than in the divisor, therefore one decimal 
place is to be pointed off in the quotient. 
(d). Divide 320. by .40 
.40)320.00(800. Ans. 
320 



00 
When the decimal places in the divisor exceed 

15 



226 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

those in the dividend, annex as many ciphers to the 
dividend as will equal the decimal places in the di- 
visor, and divide as in v^^hole numbers. The quotient 
will be a whole number. In example d we added 
2 ciphers to the dividend, giving the same number 
of decimal places in both dividend and divisor. 
(e). Divide .375 by .015 
.015). 375 (25. Ans. 
30 

75" 

75 

When the number of decimal places are the same 
in both dividend and divisor, as in example (e), the 
quotient is a whole number. 
(f). Divide 2666. by 141. 
141.) 2666.000 (18.907+ 
141 



1256 
1128 

1280 
1269 



1100 

987 

113 

When, as in the above example, the division has 
been carried on until all of the figures in the divi- 
dend have been used, annex ciphers and point off 
as many decimal places in the quotient as the deci- 
mal places in the dividend exceed those in the di- 
visor. If there is a remainder add the plus sign 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATIQN. 227 

(+) after the last figure in the quotient to indicate 
that it is not a complete result. 

11. To reduce a fraction to a decimal, 
(a). % equals what decimal? 

5)2.0(.4 
20 
(Proof :~4=x%=2/5) 

(b). What decimal is equivalent to %? 
8) 3.000 (.375 
24 
"60 
56 
"40 
40 
(Proof: .375=375/1000=3/8) 
(c). What decimal equals 4/25? 
25)4.00(.16 
25 
150 
150 
(Proof: "36=16/100=4/25) 

Rule. Annex ciphers to the numerator (the num- 
ber above the line) and divide by the denominator 
(the number below the line) and point off in the 
quotient as many decimal places as ciphers added. 

12. To reduce a decimal to a common fraction, 
(a). Reduce .525 to a common fraction. 

525 25 5 5 5 

1 — =^^ — t — =1/^ Ans. 

1,000 25 40 40 5 



228 MODEBN BUTTEE MAKING. 

(b). Reduce .75 to a common fraction. 
75 25 

-' — =% -^ns. 

100 25 
(o). Reduce .375 to a common fraction. 

375 25 15 15 5 

-. — =— , — ^ — =% Ans. 

1,000 25 40 40 5 
Rule. Under the figures of the decimal, place one 
(1) and annex as many ciphers at the right as there 
are decimal places in the decimal. Reduce the re- 
sulting fraction to its lowest terms by dividing both 
numerator and denominator by a figure which will 
divide each of them without a remainder. 

Percentage. 

13. There is no business in which a knowledge of 
the fundamental principles of percentage is more 
necessary than in dairying. In most of the opera- 
tions incident to the carrying on of the various 
phases of dairying, it is very convenient to know 
how to use the decimal or percentage system. In- 
stead of using the common fractions as %, Y^, % or 
%, it is easier to use 50/100, 25/100, 40/100 and 
60/100, or the decimals .50, .25, .40 and .60. 

It is easier to compute with numbers having the 
denominator of 10 or some power of 10, as 100, 
1,000, etc., than it is to use the common fractions. 

Percentage is a term applied to those arithmetical 
operations in which the number or quantity to be 
operated upon is supposed to be divided into 100 
equal parts. 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATION. 229 

Per cent means by the himdred. For instance: 
5 per cent of a number means 5 hundredths; that 
is, 5/100 or .05 of that number ; 5 per cent of 240 is 
240X5/100, or (240x5)-f-100=12; 25 per cent of 
850 is 850X25/100, or (850X25)--100=213.5. 

When we say that the overrun of a certain cream- 
ery is twenty per cent, we mean that for every 100 
pounds of butter fat received, there was made 120 
pounds of butter. If the creamery had received 800 
pounds of butter fat and obtained an overrun of 20 
per cent, the total butter made would be 800X20-^ 
100=160+800=960 pounds of butter. 

Solution: 800X20=16,000; 16,000-1-100=160 lbs. 
overrun ; 800+160=960 lbs. of butter made. 

The sign per cent is % and is read per cent. 
Thus, 8% is read eight per cent, 15%% is read fif- 
teen and one-half per cent, etc. 

When expressing the per cent of a number to be 
used in calculations, it is necessary to express it 
decimally instead of fractionally. Thus, instead of 
expressing 5%, 20%, 30% as 5/100, 20/100, 30/100, 
express them as .05, .20, .30, etc. 

The following table will show how per cent can 
be expressed: 

14. Table No. III. Different ways of expressing 
per cent. 
Per cent. Decimal. Fraction. 

1% .01 ^ 

5% 05 -4 



230 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 
20% .20 

75% .75 

150% 1.50 



20 

Too 

75 
100 

150 



100 
Per cent. Decimal. Fraction. 

1/4 1 

%% .0025 or 

100 400 
1/2 1 

1/2% .005 or 

100 200 
11/2 3 

iy2% .015 or 

100 200 

16% 

16%% .162/3 ^ or Ve 

100 
62y2 

621/2% .625 or % 

100 
The names of the different terms used in percent- 
age are: The base, the rate, or rate per cent, the 
percentage, the amount and the difference. 

Problem: Made 960 lbs. of butter from 800 lbs. 
of butter fat. The overrun is 160 lbs., the per cent 
of overrun is 20. 
The amount is 960 lbs., total butter made. 
The base is 800 lbs., total butter fat received. 



NOTATION AND NUMEEATION. 231 

The rate per cent is 160-^800 or 20 per cent. 

The percentage is 800X.20 or 160 lbs. overnin. 

Percentage of overrun must not be confused with 
per cent of overrun. Percentage is the result ob- 
tained by multiplying the base (800 lbs.) by the 
per cent (.20) of overrun. 

The per cent of overrun is obtained by dividing 
the percentage (160) by the base (800), the total 
butter fat. 



: CHAPTER n. 

The Ovbrkun in Butteb Making 

15. The overrun is to creamery butter maMng 
what the water gauge is to a boiler and a steam 
gauge to an engine. The amount of overrun a cream- 
ery obtains is a true index to its method of manage- 
ment. Upon the per cent of overrun obtained rests 
the success or failure of any creamery. It is impor- 
tant to know the per cent of overrun obtained as well 
as to know whether the overrun is a true or a false 
one. The creameryman should know whether cal- 
culations are based upon the number of pounds of 
butter fat received in milk or cream, and whether 
the weight of butter from the churn, or the weight 
taken from market returns constitutes the basis of 
overrun. 

16. The overrun. The amount of overrun is in- 
fluenced by the composition of the butter made, and 
varies according to the variation in the composi- 
tion of the butter. The maximum overrun which 
can be obtained is governed by established stand- 
ards of moisture and butter fat, and is locally in- 
fluenced by the demands of commission houses for 
butter of a certain composition. In order to be 
able to demand a certain overrun from creameries, 
we must know what kind of butter their market de- 
mands, as well as what system of cream getting is 
practiced and the method of calculation employed. 

The efficiency of the working of a creamery can- 



THE OVEEEUN. 233 

not be accurately judged by the per cent of over- 
run obtained, unless intelligent inquiry has been 
made as to the basis on which the overrun is cal- 
culated. 

17. Definitions and explanations, (a). The over- 
run is the amount of butter made in excess of the 
amount of butter fat bought, whether this is in milk 
or cream. The amount of butter made in excess 
of the butter fat is called overrun because more 
butter is made than there is butter fat. 

The term *' yield" should not be used as meaning 
overrun in butter making. This term is properly 
applied in cheese making, meaning the amount of 
cheese made, either per hundred pounds of milk or 
per pounds of butter fat in one hundred pounds 
of milk. 

(b). The per cent of overrun. By the per cent of 
overrun we mean the quantity of butter made in 
excess of every hundred pounds of butter fat re- 
ceived and made into butter. When the overrun is 
eighteen per cent, it means that for every one hun- 
dred pounds of butter fat, one hundred and eighteen 
pounds of butter were made. 

(c). Percentage of overriin. By percentage of 
overrun we mean the quantity of butter made in 
excess of any quantity of butter fat received and 
made into butter. 

18. Cause of overrun. The overrun is due to the 
incorporation of salt, casein, moisture and other 
minor ingredients which enter into the composition 
of milk and are retained by the butter in the process 
of manufacture. The main factor affecting the 



234 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

overrun is the variation in the per cent of salt and 
moisture present in the butter. 

19. Variations in overrun in whole milk cream- 
eries. Where whole milk is received, the overrun 
is influenced by errors in weighing, in sampling, in 
caring for samples, in reading tests, as well as by 
spilling milk, by inefficient separating, by not flush- 
ing separator bowls, by leaky vats, by lack of at- 
tention during pasteurizing, by improper ripening 
of cream, by insufficient cooling before churning, by 
churning at abnormal temperatures, by churning in 
a leaky churn, and by employing improper methods 
in washing, salting, working and handling the 
butter. 

20. Variations in overrun in hand separator cream 
creameries. In a hand separator cream creamery 
we find all of the above causes affecting the over- 
run, except the loss sustained through mistakes in 
the separating of milk. In addition to these we 
have the spilling of cream during transit (it having 
been weighed at the farm by hauler), the taking 
of cream from cans on the way to creamery and fav- 
oritism shown patrons by hauler taking the sample 
of cream before the rinsings have been added and 
the cream weighed and recorded. 

21. True and false overrun. True overrun. The 
only correct or true overrun is the overrun deter- 
mined by basing calculations upon the total amount 
of butter fat received and the amount of butter 
made, according to its weight after being taken from 
the churn, packed and weighed. Any losses occur- 
ring later, through the handling or holding of but- 



THE OVEEEUN. 235 

ter are termed either avoidable or unavoidable 
losses, and do not affect the true overrun. In order 
to fully explain the difference between the true and 
false overrun, one problem will be used as a basis 
for comparison and will be used in each case to show 
the difference between the two. 

Problem: Keceived in 20,000 lbs. of 4% milk, 
800 lbs. of butter fat. From this 975 lbs. butter were 
made. What is the true overrun expressed both in 
per cent and percentage ? Ans. Percentage of over- 
run 175 lbs. Per cent of overrun 21.875 per cent. 

In figuring the true overrun for both whole milk 
and hand separator cream creameries, 2 per cent 
losses are allowed for whole milk creameries and 
1 per cent losses are allowed for hand separator 
cream creameries on the total butter fat received. 
Solution for whole milk creameries: Butter fat re- 
ceived = 800 lbs.; butter made == 975 lbs.; differ- 
ence = 975 — 800=175 lbs.; per cent of overrun 
would be: (175-^-800)Xl00=21.875%. 

Percentage of overrun would be: 800X21.875^- 
100=175. lbs. The true overrun is 21.875%. 

22. Market ovemrn. (False overrun.) Overrun 
calculations based upon any other basis than the 
above standard are called ''false," as, for instance, 
when the overrun is based upon the total fat re- 
ceived and the market weight of butter sold. From 
personal experience, as well as from reports received 
from hundreds of creameries, the losses sustained in 
the handling of butter from the time it is taken 
from the churn, are assumed to be about 1% per 
cent. When we include the loss of 2 per cent in- 



236 MODEBN BtJTTEB MAKING. 

cident to the handling of the butter fat before and 
during churning, the total loss would be about 3l^ 
per cent of the total butter fat received in whole 
milk. In hand separator cream the loss is about 
1 per cent less, except where a number of cream 
buying stations or wagon cream routes are con- 
nected with the creamery. In this case the differ- 
ence between the total butter fat bought of the 
patrons and the butter fat actually recovered in the 
butter varies from 2 to 5 per cent of the total but- 
ter fat bought. 

23. Overrun based upon market returns. To il- 
lustrate: Butter fat received = 800 lbs.; butter 
made = 975 lbs. Loss sustained = 1^/4% of 975 or 
12.1875 lbs. Market return weight = 975—12.1875 
or 962.8125 lbs. Market overrun = 962.8125— 
800 or 162.8125 lbs. (162.8125^800) XlOO= 
20.35+%. 

True overrun: 21.875%. 

Market overrun: 20.35%. 

The difference = 21.875—20.35 or 1.525%. 

Another false overrun frequently met with is 
the overrun obtained when calculations are based 
upon the composition of butter, no allowance being 
made for losses sustained at the creamery after 
churning or during transit. 

24. Overrun based upon composition of butter. 
To illustrate. Butter fat received : 800 lbs. ; loss at 
creamery 2% (800X2) -^100=16 lbs. loss. 

Butter fat recovered in butter: (800—16) or 784 
lbs. Butter made: 975 lbs. 

Per cent of overrun : 975 — 784-=191 lbs. the over- 



THE OVERRUN. 237 

run in lbs.; 191-^-784=.2436 the overran for each 
pound of butter fat ; and for every 100 lbs the over- 
run is .2436X100=24.36%. 

Overrun based upon the composition of butter 
24.36%. 

Market overrun (Par. 22-23) 20.35%. 

True overrun (Par. 21) 21.875%. 

Making 975 lbs. of butter from 784 lbs. of actually 
recovered butter fat, we get the following composi- 
tion: Fat 81.41 per cent, salt 2.70 per cent, casein 
1 per cent and moisture 15.89 per cent, making up 
the total of 100 per cent. 

25. How to find the per cent of butter fat in but- 
ter when the amount of butter made, butter fat re- 
ceived, and losses at the creamery are known, as 
per the given composition. 

Butter made is 975 lbs. ; butter fat received is 
800 lbs. ; loss at creamery is 2 per cent. 

Butter fat = 800 lbs.; Loss = (800X2) -f-100= 
16 lbs. 

Butter fat in butter is : 800—16 or 784 lbs. 

Butter made : 975 lbs. 

Per cent butter fat in butter =(784-t-975)X100= 
80.41+%. Ans. 

The overrun on butter of such composition as 
tabulated below is: 24.36 per cent, based upon the 
composition of butter. 

Fat 80.41 per cent, salt 2.70 per cent, casein 1 per 
cent, water 15.89 per cent. Total 100 per cent. 

26. Hand separator cream overrun. Assuming that 
butter of the same composition is made as was 



238 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

made in the foregoing in a whole milk creamery, 
the loss at creamery being 1 per cent. 

The true overrun: Butter fat received: 800 lbs.; 
butter fat in butter made: 80.41%. 
(800Xl)-^100==8 lbs loss; 800—8=792 lbs. fat made 
into butter; (792-^80.41) X 100=984.94 lbs. butter 
made. Per cent overrun = 984.94—800=184.94; 
(184.94-4-800) X100=23.12% overrun. 

27. Comparison of true overrun. 
Whole milk cream overrun: 21.875%. 
Hand separator cream overrun: 23.12%. 
Difference between the two: 1.245%. 

This means that for every 1 per cent of butter 
fat saved at the creamery, there is an approximate 
increase of 1.245 per cent on the overrun, when but- 
ter is made in composition as above illustrated. 

28. Market overrun. Hand separator cream. 
Problem: Received 800 lbs. butter fat. Made 

984.94 lbs. butter. Loss 1% per cent. 

(984.94X1%)-^100=12.31 lbs. loss. 

Market return weight = 984.94—12.31=972.63 lbs. 

Per cent overrun = 972.63—800=172.63; (172.63 
-f-800)Xl00=21.58%. 

29. Overrun based upon composition of butter. 

Composition. 
Butter fat 80.41 
Salt 2.70 

Casein 1.00 

Water 15.89 



Total 100.00 
Problem: Received 800 lbs. fat which made 984.- 
94 lbs. butter; allowing 1% for mechanical losses. 



THE OVEEEUN. 239 

Solution: (800+1-^-100=8 lbs. loss. 800—8= 
792 lbs. butter fat in butter. Overrun=984.94— 
792=192.94 ; (192.94-f-792) X100=24.36%. 

30. Comparison of various overruns. 

Whole Milk Cream. 
True overrun 21.875% 

Market overrun 20.35 %• 

Composition of butter, overrun 24.36 % 

Hand Separator Cream. 
True overrun 23.12% 

Market overrun 21.58% 

Composition of butter, overrun 24.36% 
The above overruns are based upon the same 
amount of butter fat received in both milk and 
cream, and made into butter having the same com- 
position. It was assumed that the tests were prop- 
erly read. 

The composition of butter was: Fat 80.41 per 
cent, salt 2.70 per cent, water 15.89 per cent, casein 
1.00 per cent. For mechanical losses 2 per cent was 
allowed on whole milk cream, and 1 per cent was 
allowed on hand separator cream, on every 100 lbs. 
of butter fat received. For losses during transit 
11/4 per cent was allowed on whole milk and on hand 
separator cream. 

Since the overrun is influenced by such a variety 
of conditions, and the calculations for determining 
it are based upon both true and false standards, it 
is not to be wondered at that our practical dairy- 
men, as well as others interested in dairying, do 
not more clearly understand this phase of the work. 
In order to more clearly understand the results em- 
bodied in monthly statements issued by creameries, 



240 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



the creamery secretary and the butter maker should 
acquaint themselves with the fundamental princi- 
ples involved, and the basis upon which the over- 
run is determined. Not only should the butter maker 
and creamery secretary know how to determine the 
overrun intelligently, but instructors and inspectors, 
who are supposed to instruct the dairymen, should 
understand this important part of creamery work. 
Demanding a given overrun, which is not in har- 
mony with honest work, may lead many creamery 
operators to under read the test of milk and cream. 
31. Overrun for a whole milk creamery. In the 
following, Table No. 4, is shown the overrun that 
it is possible to get from 800 lbs. of butter fat when 
butter made varies in fat content. 



Variations in Overrun. 

TABLE IV. 
Variations in Overrun. 



Per cent of fat In butter 


80.41 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 






Creamery loss in per cent 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


Creamery loss in pounds 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


Number of lbs. of butter fat 


784 


784 


784 


784 


784 


784 


Number lbs. of butter made 


975 


967.9 


956.09 


944.58 


933.33 


922.35 


Per cent of market shrinkage- 


ly* 


1% 


m 


1% 


ly* 


IV* 


Pounds of market shrinkage 


12.19 


12.09 


11.94 


11.8 


11.67 


11.53 


Market weight in pounds 


962.8 


955.81 


944.05 


931.78 


922.38 


910.82 


Per cent overrun on composition 
of butter _ 


24.36 


23.45 


21.95 


20.48 


19.05 


17.64 






Per cent of market overrun 


20.35 


19.48 


18.00 


16.47 


15.29 


13.84 


Per cent of true overrun 


21.87+ 


20.99- 


19.51 


18.07 


16.75+ 


15.29 


Per cent of moisture 


15.89 


15.30 


14.80 


13.30 


12.30 


11.30 


Per cent of salt 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 


2,70 


2.70 






Per cent of caeeln. 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 







THE OVEEEUN. 



241 



Prom the foregoing table it will be noticed that 
when a creamery obtains an overrun of 17-18 per cent, 
the butter must contain 82 per cent fat, 15 per cent 
water, 2.5 per cent salt and 1 per cent casein. Me- 
chanical losses must not be more than 2.5 per cent, 
and shrinkage or allowance during transit must not 
be more than 1 per cent of the butter manufactured. 
As the moisture increases and fat decreases in but- 
ter the overrun increases or decreases. 

32. Ovemm for a hand separator cream creamery. 
The following table shows the various overruns that 
a creamery can rightly obtain, using 800 lbs. of 
butter fat as a basis, and making butter which 
varies in the per cent of butter fat. 
Various Overruns According to Per Cent Fat in 
Butter. 

TABLE V. 

Variotis Overruns, According Per Cent Fat in Butter. 



Per cent of fat in butter 


80.41 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 


Per cent of creamery loss 


1 


1 


1 


^ 


1 


1 


Pounds of butter fat creamery 
loss 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 






Pounds of butter fat in butter- 


792 


792 


792 


792 


792 


792 


Pounds of butter made 


984.94 


977.77 


965.85 


954.21 


942.85 


931.76 


Per cent of market shrinkage — 


m 


1% 


VA 


VA 


m 


VA 


Pounds of market shrinkage 


12.31 


12.22 


12.07 


11.92 


11.78 


11.64 


Market weight— pounds 


972.63 


965.55 


953.78 


942.29 


931.07 


920.12 


Per cent overrun on composition 
of butter 


24.36 


23.45 


21.95 


20.48 


19.05 


17.64 






Per cent of market overrun 


21.58 


20.69 


19.22 


17.78 


16.38 


15.01 


Per cent of true overrun 


23.12 


22.22 


20.73 


19.27 


17.85 


16.47 


Per cent of moisture 


15.89 


15.30 


14.30 


13.30 


12.30 


11.30 


Per cent of salt . — 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 


2.70 






Per cent of casein 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 



le 



242 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

When hand separator cream is delivered by pa- 
trons themselves ; when testing and weighing are 
properly done, the overrun should come close to that 
indicated in the above table. When cream is bought 
through receiving stations the overrun is very often 
less than indicated in the foregoing table. 

33. In the foregoing tables is found the per cent 
of overrun which can rightly be obtained under the 
conditions presented. When butter is printed or 
moulded direct from the churn, the weight of the 
butter then constitutes the basis on which to deter- 
mine both the true and the market overrun. In 
this case there are no losses between the first weight 
and the market weight. Unless butter so put up 
does not have full weight, the overrun obtained 
when butter is moulded or printed is a trifle less 
than that obtained when butter is packed in tubs or 
boxes. When butter is printed, we may, for prac- 
tical purposes, call the market weight the weight 
for the true overrun, thus having the true and the 
market overrun the same. In print butter there is 
no difference made between the creamery and the 
market weight. 

The overrun is increased or decreased according 
as the per cent of salt is increased or decreased, 
unless the moisture is decreased and increased ac- 
cordingly. The amount of casein is usually about 
the same, varying very slightly in butter made from 
good, well ripened and properly churned cream. 
As a rule the per cent of casein increases as the 
quality of the cream changes from good to poor. 
It can be increased considerably by mechanical 



THE OVEERUN. 



243 



methods, but this practice should be discouraged, 
not only on the grounds of honesty, but also for 
the reason that an increase of casein is usually at- 
tended by a poorer quality of butter. Casein should 
not be considered a factor in controlling the com- 
position of butter. 

34. How under reading milk tests affects results 
in buttermaking". 

The following table shows how under-reading 4 
per cent milk .1 to .5 per cent, when receiving 20,000 
lbs. of milk, affects the overrun. 

TABLE VI. 

The Following Table Shows How Underreadmg 4% Milk 
.1 to .5%, when receiving 20,000 lbs. of Milk af- 
fects the Overrun. 



20,000 

lbs. of 

milk 

received 


Butter fat 
in milk ac- 
cording to 
various 

tests 


Total 
butter 
fat in 
butter 


Per 

cent of 
butter 
fat in 
butter 


ibs. 

of 
butter 
made 


Per cent 
of true 
over- 
run 


Per cent 
of false 
overrun, 
due to 
under- 
reading 


Per cent 

of in- 
crease in 
overrun, 
due to 
under- 
reading 


It tests 


4 % 


800 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 






3.9% 


780 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 


25.64 


3.14 


3.8% 


760 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 


28.94 


6.44 


3.7% 


740 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 


32.44 


9.94 


3.6% 


720 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 


36.11 


13.60 


3.5% 


700 lbs. 


784 lbs. 


80 


980 


22.50 


40.00 


17.50 



From this table it will be seen that for every .1 
per cent of under-reading of the milk test when 
butter having 80 per cent butter fat is made, the 
overrun is increased 3.14 per cent, or an increase of 
24.5 pounds of butter on 800 pounds of butter fat. 



244 MODEEN BUTTEB MAKING. 

35. Extension of Table No. VI. 

TABLE VII. 



Increase in 
butter lbs. per 

.1% daily 
under-reading 


Increase 

per day 

at 25c per 

pound. 


Increase 

in one 

year of 

800 days 


Increase In one 
year when 40,000 
pounds of milk 
is received daily 


.1%= 24.5lbS. 


$ 6.125 


$1,837.50 


$ 3,675. 


.2%= 49. lbs. 


12.25 


3,675. 


7,350. 


.3%= 73. 5 lbs. 


18.37+ 


5,511. 


11,022. 


.4%= 98. lbs. 


24.50 


7,350. 


14,700. 


.5%=:122.51bs. 


30.625 


9,186. 


18,372. 



If a person is not properly trained in reading 
tests, or is not careful in making the tests, it can 
easily be seen from the foregoing tables that great 
losses can be caused, both to the patrons and share- 
holders of a creamery. The lower the test of milk, 
the greater is the difference in overrun for every 
.1 per cent of over or under-reading. 

36. How over-reading affects the overrun. 





TABLE VIII. 

How Overreading Affects the 


> Overrun. 




Overread- 

ine test 
by .1% 


Butter fat in 

20,000 lbs. 

of milk 


Pounds 

of butter 

made 


Per cent 
of true 
overrun 


Per cent 
of false 
overrun 


Per cent 
of decrease 
in overrun 


Correct 

test 

4 % 


800 lbs. 


980 


22.50 






4.1% 


820 lbs. 


980 


22.50 


19.51 


2.99 


4.2% 


840 lbs. 


980 


22.50 


16.67- 


5.83 


4.3% 


860 lbs. 


980 


22.50 


13.95-F 


8.55 


4.4% 


880 lbs. 


980 


22.50 


11.36 


11.14 


4.5% 


900 lbs. 


980 


22.50 


8.88 


13.62 



THE OVEERtTN. 



245 



By reading the test .1 per cent too low, on 4 per 
cent milk the overrun is increased 3.14 per cent, 
Table VI. ; and by reading the test .1 per cent too 
high on 4 per cent milk, the overrun is reduced 
2.99 per cent, Table No. VIII. This shows how easily 
the overrun may be reduced by reading the test 
while the test is too hot, and how easily it can be 
increased by reading the test when it is too cold, or 
by including the full meniscus, or by not including 
the meniscus in reading milk tests. Not only is 
the overrun affected by the above mentioned con- 
ditions, but not infrequently by deliberate over or 
under-reading of milk or cream tests. 

37. The effect of under-reading cream tests. Table 
No. IX. Assuming that 800 lbs. of butter fat is re- 
ceived in 3,200 lbs. of cream testing 25 per cent. 
Butter made contains 80 per cent butter fat and the 
loss incident to its manufacture is 1 per cent. 





The Effect of 


TABLE IX. 

Underreading 


Cream 


Tests. 




3200 lbs. 
Of 

cream 


No. of 

lbs. of 
butter 
fat in 
cream 


Total 
lbs. of 
butter 
fat in 
butter 


Per cent 

of 
butter 
fat in 
butter 


No. of 

lbs. of 
butter 
made 


Per cent 

of 

true 

overrun 


Per cent 
of false 
overrun 
due to 
reduced 
reading 


Per cent 
increase 

of 
overrun 
per .5% 
reduced 
reading 


Test Of 
cream 


Correct 

test 
25 % 


800 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 







24.5% 


784 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 


26.27 


2.52 


24 % 


768 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 


28.90 


5.15 


23.5% 


752 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 


31.64 


7.89 


23 % 


736 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 


34.51 


10.76 


22.5% 


720 


792 


80 


990 


23.75 


37.50 


13.75 



The above table shows that for every .5 per cent 
reduction in reading 25 per cent cream, the overrun 



246 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



is increased by about 2.7 per cent. The higher the 
cream tests are, the less is the increase in overrun 
due to reduced reading. 

38. Table No. X., continuation of table No. IX. 
Showing increase in lbs. and value at 25c per lb. 

TABLE X. 

Continuation of Above Table No. IX. Showing Increase in 
lbs. and Value at 25 cents per lb. 



Beadinffs 
reduced 

from .5% 
to 2.5% 


Butter lbs. in- 
crease due to 

reduced 
reading daily 


Value at 

25c per lb. 

daily 


Value during 

one year of 

300 days 


Value when 6400 

lbs. is received 

daily for one 

year 


.5% 


19.8 


$ 4.95 


$1,485. 


$ 2,970 


1. % 


39.6 


9.80 


2,940. 


5,880 


1.5% 


59.4 


14.85 


4,455. 


8,910 


2. % 


79.2 


19.80 


5,940. 


11,880 


2.5% 


99. 


24.75 


7,425. 


14,850 



That great care should be exercised at cream 
buying stations is clearly shown in the foregoing 
tables. The amount of butter fat bought should 
check up to within 2 per cent of the amount found 
to be in the cream when tested at the central 
station. When cream is bought at a receiving sta- 
tion the overrun is very likely to be from 2 per cent 
to 21/2 per cent, or even 4 per cent less than when 
cream is delivered directly to the creamery. 

39. Butter fat in milk plus one-sixth equals the 
amount of butter made. 

The approximate amount of butter which can be 
made from any given number of pounds of butter 
fat is found by adding one-sixth of itself to the 
number of pounds of butter fat. This is true when 
butter having about 821/2 per cent butter fat is made. 



THE OVEREUN. 



247 



This was agreed upon by the Association of Ameri- 
can Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations 
at their ninth annual convention. 

The amount of butter which can be made from 
any given amount of butter fat also depends largely 
upon the skill of the operator and upon the compo- 
sition of the butter made; therefore the results ob- 
tained may be either higher or lower than results 
given in the preceding pages. 

The per cent of overrun is no true indication of 
the composition of butter, nor is the composition 
of butter a true indication of the per cent of over- 
run. 

40. The effect of overreading cream tests. Assum- 
ing that 800 lbs. of butter fat are received in 3,200 
lbs. of cream testing 25 per cent. Butter made con- 
tains 80 per cent butter fat. Loss incident to manu- 
facture is 1 per cent. 

TABLE XI. 

The Effect of Overreading Cream Tests. 



3200 
lbs. of 
cream 


No. of 

lbs. 
butter 
fat in 
cream 


Total 
lbs. of 
butter 
fat in 
butter 


Per cent 
of 

butter 
fat in 
butter 


No. of 
lbs. of 
butter 
made 


Per cent 
of false 
overrun. 

Due 
to over- 
reading 


Per cent 

of 

true 

overrun 


Per cent 
of 
reduc- 
tion of 
overrun 
by .5% 


Test of 
cream 


Correct 

test 
25 % 


800 


792 


80 


990 




23.75 




25.5% 


816 


792 


80 


990 


21.32 


23.75 


2.43 


26 % 


832 


792 


80 


990 


18.97 


23.75 


4.78 


26.5% 


848 


792 


80 


990 


16.74 


23.75 


7.01 


27 % 
27.5% 


864 

880 


792 
792 


80 
80 


990 
990 


14.58 
12.50 


23.75 
23.75 


9.17 
11.25 



248 



MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 



In the foregoing table we find that for every .5 per 
cent overreading the overrun is reduced about 2.43 
per cent and grows slightly less for every .5 per cent 
as the cream increases in richness of butter fat. 

41. Continuation of table XI. showing a decrease 
in overrun in pounds of butter made, and the amount 
of loss at 25c per pound, when 3,200 lbs. of 25 per 
cent cream is read too high as in the preceding 
table. 

TABLE XII. 



Decrease in lbs. of 
butter per .5% over- 
reading of cream 
tests daily 


Daily loss 

at 
25c per lb. 


Loss per 
year of 
300 days 


Loss per year / /, . 
when 49,060 lbs. h ^^ 
of BftHfe are t^Ua 
received daily 


.5%= 20 lbs. 


$ 5.00 


$1,500 


$ 3,000 


1. %— 401bs. 


10.00 


3,000 


6,000 


1.5%= 60 lbs. 


15.00 


4,500 


9,000 


2. %=801bs. 


20.00 


6,000 


12,000 


2.5%=1001bs. 


25.00 


7,500 


15,000 



The necessity of proper training for operating the 
Babcock test is again emphasized by the results 
presented in the foregoing tables. When we con- 
sider the foregoing chapter in its broadest sense it 
becomes evident that more and better training is 
necessary for the creamery operator, as well as 
better laws pertaining to this phase of the dairy 
industry. This is necessary for the protection of 
those who wish to perform their work honestly 
amidst unscrupulous persons. Taking a Dairy School 
course is undoubtedly the best way of gaining the 
knowledge necessary for properly performing all 



THE OVEEEUN. 249 

the operations necessary for the handling of the 
Babcock test. 
42. Main factors affecting the overrun. 

(a) Factors causing an increase in overrun : 

1. Under-reading cream or milk tests. 

2. Reading tests when too cold. 

3. Not whirling test bottles long enough. 

4. Short weight of test samples. 

5. Reducing the per cent of fat in butter. 

6. Increasing the per cent of moisture in butter. 

7. Increasing the per cent of casein in butter. 

8. Reducing losses to a minimum. 

9. Giving short milk or cream weights. 

10. Churning at high temperatures. 

11. Working butter in wash water. 

12. Washing butter with warm water. 

13. Overworking butter in water when soft. 

(b) Factors causing a decrease in ovemm : 

1. Overreading cream or milk tests. 

2. Reading tests when sample is too hot. 

3. Black specks and flocules in sample tested. 

4. Overweight of test sample. 

5. Too high per cent of fat in butter. 

6. Too dry butter. 

7. Decreasing the per cent of casein. 

8. Spilling milk or cream or using a leaky churn. 

9. Giving over weight in milk or cream. 

10. Churning very cold cream and washing in very 
cold water. 

11. Working hard butter at intervals instead of 
continuously until done. 



250 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

12. Draining butter too dry and adding cold, dry- 
salt. 

13. Adding salt to cream or wash water. 

(c) Factors affecting overrun (market returns) 
after butter is made: 

1. Dropping small pieces of butter during pack- 
ing. 

2. Allowing butter to stick to churn, ladles and 
printers. 

3. Leaky butter, losing water during handling 
and transit. 

4. Repacking hardened butter. 

5. Allowing butter to harden in churn before 
packing. 

6. Incorrect weighing of butter when packed. 



CHAPTER ni. 

Standardization of Milk and Cream and Butter 
Fat Values. 

(a) Standardization of milk and cream. 

43. Correct standardization of milk and cream is 
without doubt a very important factor in the suc- 
cessful handling of these products. The butter fat — 
the least variable constituent of milk — is the most 
valuable, hence the necessity of knowing accurately 
the per cent of butter fat contained in milk and 
cream. 

Many iastances are known of milk being sold con- 
taining much more butter fat than the price received 
for it would warrant without sustaining losses. On 
the other hand, without testing or standardizing 
milk, it is sometimes sold containing less butter fat 
than the legal standard. When the butter fat con- 
tent is too low the consumer is the loser, and the 
sale of such milk is illegal ; when the butter fat con- 
tent is too high, the dealer is the loser. 

Where the milk is bought for a certain considera- 
tion per hundred pounds, or by the fat content, based 
upon the Babcock test, and part of it is sold in the 
form of cream, the necessity of knowing the exact 
fat content is important. In many instances this 
milk is run through a separator with the machiae 
so adjusted as to skim about the desired per cent 
of fat. Even with the milk uniformly heated, the 
speed regular, and the same rate of inflow, a great 
variation in the fat content of cream will be no- 

251 



252 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

ticed. Even when all conditions are exactly the 
same there is always a little difference in the fat 
content of the cream. With some kinds of separators 
this variation in fat content is not nearly so great 
as with others, but the variation is always great 
enough to make it impossible to go by guess work 
and thereby incur losses which might be avoided by 
a little mathematical calculation. When once the 
general milk dealer becomes conscious of the fact 
that his competitor, by adopting the Babcock test, 
a method of standardization, and up-to-date dairy 
machinery makes greater profits in his line of work, 
he will not fail to learn and adopt methods which 
will put him on the same basis as his neighbor. 
Where milk and cream are bought only on the but- 
ter fat basis, they certainly must be sold on the same 
basis in order to avoid losses to the dealer, or cheat- 
ing the consumers. 

44. The extent to which losses may be incurred 
by buying on the butter fat basis and selling by 
weight or measure may readily be seen by the fol- 
lowing: A milk and cream establishment receives 
about 20,000 pounds of milk per day, testing 4.5 per 
cent of butter fat. This milk, at an average price 
of 20c per pound of butter fat, would cost $180, 
figured as follows. 20,000 pounds of 4.5 per cent-f- 
100=900 lbs. of butter fat, which, at 20c, would 
be $180. One-half of this 20,000 pounds of milk is 
sold as milk. Under contract the milk should con- 
tain 3.8 per cent of butter fat ; but when sold con- 
taining 4.5 per cent instead of 3.8 per cent the loss 
sustained by the dealer would be 4.5 per cent — 3.8 



STANDAEBIZATION OF CEBAM. 253 

or .7 per cent, or 70 lbs. of butter fat. Seventy 
pounds of butter fat at 20c a pound equals $14 losi 
each day on 10,000 lbs. of milk. 

45. The other 10,000 lbs of milk is separated and 
sold in the form of cream at 20c a quart. The 
separator is adjusted so as to skim cream testing 20 
per cent, but instead of skimming a 20 per cent 
cream, it skims a cream which tests 22 per cent. 
The loss in this case at 20c a quart would be as 
follows: The total fat in the cream is 450 lbs. 
450-^20 per cent X 100=2,250 lbs. of 20 per cent 
cream. The number of pounds of 22 per cent cream 
would be 450-^22X100, or 2,045 lbs. The differ- 
ence would be 2,250—2,045 or 205 lbs. of cream. 
This would equal about 96 quarts, which, at 20c 
a quart, amounts to $19.20. The loss per day is— 
on the milk $14, on the cream, $19.20, making a 
total loss of $33.20. On 300 working days per year 
this would amount to a loss of $9,960. 

Suppose such a sized plant employs 15 men at an 
average wage of $60 per month. These losses alone 
would practically pay all but one of these men. 

Before actually figuring it out the variation in the 
fat content seems unimportant, but the above calcu- 
lation shows that it amounts to rather a snug sum 
in a year. And in 20 years it would amount to 
$199,200 — a handome sum, indeed, and enough to 
make even two partners feel comfortable and look 
cheerfully toward coming old age. 

This illustration bears out the statement that great 
losses can be incurred by buying milk on the basis 
of the butter fat content and selling by weight 



254 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

or measure without regard to the fat content. In 
order to do justice to both the dealer and the con- 
sumer, milk should be bought and sold on the basis 
of the butter fat content. A butcher would not 
sell the different cuts of meat for the same price, 
nor would a miller sell fancy flour for the same 
price as the poorer grades. But does the average 
milk dealer ever think of selling milk and cream 
on an accurate butter fat basis? Many consumers 
of milk and cream do not know any difference 
between rich and poor cream, and the expression 
''pure cream" usually conveys the meaning of a 
rich, heavy cream with a high per cent of butter fat. 

I am personally acquainted with some dealers and 
have a knowledge of their methods of handling 
milk and cream. The milk is separated and the 
richness of the cream regulated by the cream screw ; 
the cream at times varies from 2 to 3 per cent of 
that desired by the dealer. From the methods gen- 
erally employed in handling milk and preparing it 
for the market, it seems that a method by which 
milk and cream can be easily and accurately made 
to test the desired per cent of butter fat is indispen- 
sable. This is known as standardization. Standardi- 
zation, as applied to milk and cream, is a process by 
which skim milk can be extracted from or added 
to milk or cream, or whole milk or cream can be 
added to milk or cream to raise or lower the per 
cent of butter fat to the desired standard. 

The following problems with rules and analyses 
will show the methods which may be employed in 
standardizing milk and cream : 



STANDARDIZATION OF CEEAM. 255 

46. Problems in standardization of milk and cream. 

1. When cream is too low in per cent of fat. 

Rule I. Subtract the per cent of fat in the cream 
to be raised to a higher per cent from the desired 
per cent. 

Rule II. Subtract the desired per cent of fat 
from the per cent of fat in the cream to be used 
to add to the cream; divide the first difference by 
the second difference and multiply the quotient by 
the number of pounds of thin cream to be raised 
to a higher per cent of fat. The result is the number 
of pounds of higher testing cream to be added to 
the thin cream to be raised to a higher per cent of 
fat. The total cream would be obtained by adding 
the number of pounds of rich cream to the number 
of pounds of thin cream. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of 25 per cent testing cream 
is to be raised to 40 per cent with cream testing 
50 per cent butter fat. Find how many pounds of 
the 50 per cent cream must be added to the 25 per 
cent cream to make it test 40 per cent. 

Solution: 40 per cent — 25 per cent=15 per cent. 
15-^10^1.5. 50 per cent — 40 per cent=10 per cent. 
1,000X1.5=1,500 lbs., the number of pounds of 
50 per cent cream to be added to 25 per cent cream 
to raise it to 40 per cent. 

One thousand pounds plus 1,500=2,500 pounds= 
the whole amount of cream testing 40 per cent. 

Proof: 1,000 lbs. X 25 per cent=250 lbs. of butter 
fat; 1,500 lbs. X50 per cent=750 lbs. of butter fat; 
750 plus 250=1,000 lbs., total butter fat ; 2,500 lbs. 
X40 per cent=l,000 lbs. 



256 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

2. When cream is too high in per cent of fat. 
Bule I. From the test of the rich cream subtract 

the test of the desired cream. 

Rule II. Subtract the test of the thin cream to be 
added to dilute rich cream, from the desired test. 
Divide the first difference by the second and multi- 
ply the quotient by the number of pounds of rich 
cream to be lowered, and the result will be the num- 
ber of pounds of thin cream to be added to the rich 
cream to reduce it to the desired test. The total 
number of pounds of cream may be found by adding 
the number of pounds of thin cream to the number 
of pounds of rich cream. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of 50 per cent testing cream 
is to be diluted to 40 per cent with cream testing 
25 per cent. How many pounds of 25 per cent must 
be added to give the desired test? 

Solution: 50 per cent — 40 per cent=10 per cent. 
10 per cent^-15=.66666 plus. 40 per cent — 25 per 
cent=15 per cent. 1,000X.66666=666.66 plus 
pounds. 666.66=the number of pounds of thin 
cream to be added to reduce the heavy cream to 40 
per cent. Total cream equals 1,000 lbs. plus 666.66 
pounds or 1,666.66+ lbs. 

Proof: 1,000 lbs. X 50 per cent=500 lbs. of fat 
in 1,000 lbs. of 50 per cent cream. 

666.66 lbs. X25 per cent=166.66 lbs. of fat in 
666.66 lbs. of 25 per cent cream. 

500+166.66=666.66, total pounds of fat in cream. 

3. When a definite number of pounds of cream of a 
certain richness is wanted and cream or milk of less 
butter fat content is on hand, to find the ratio of 



STANDABDIZATION OF CREAM. 257 

number of pounds of the two kinds to mix together 
to reduce the richer cream to the butter fat content 
desired : 

Rule I. Subtract the per cent of fat in the cream 
to be used to add to heavy cream to dilute it from 
the desired test. 

Rule II. Subtract the per cent of thin cream 
from the test of the rich cream and divide the re- 
mainder into the result obtained in the first sub- 
traction. Multiply the quotient by 100 and the re- 
sult will be the per cent of the rich cream to be 
used in standardizing the cream. 

Problem. How many pounds each of 50 per cent 
and 25 per cent cream must be mixed together to 
produce 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 40 per cent? 

Solution : 

40 per cent — 25 per cent=15 per cent. 

15 per cent-f-25 per cent=.6 per cent. 

50 per cent — 25 per cent=25 per cent. 

.6X100=60 per cent, the per cent of 50 per cent 
cream to be used for the standardization of cream. 
1,000 lbs. of 40 per cent is wanted. Sixty per 
cent of 1,000 lbs. equals 600 lbs., the number of 
pounds of 50 per cent cream necessary. 40 , per 
cent of the 25 per cent cream is to be added to the 
rich cream to reduce the test to 40 per cent. 

Proof: 1,000 lbs. of 40 per cent cream=400 lbs. 
butter fat. 

60 per cent of 1,000 lbs.=600 lbs. of 50 per cent 
cream to be used. 

40 per cent of 1,000 lbs.=400 lbs. of 25 per cent 
cream to be used. 

17 



258 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

600 lbs. of 50 per cent cream=300 lbs butter fat. 

400 lbs. of 25 per cent cream=100 lbs. butter fat. 

400 lbs. total butter fat. 

4. To find the ratio of the number of pounds of 
cream and skim-milk to be mixed to give a definite 
quantity of a definite richness: 

Rule I. Determine the quantity of fat in the de- 
sired cream by multiplying the number of pounds of 
cream wanted by the desired test and dividing the 
results by 100. 

Rule II. Divide the number of pounds of butter 
fat by the test of the cream on hand for use in 
standardizing, and multiply the quotient by 100. 
The result will give the number of pounds of cream 
to be used. The difference between the amount of 
cream desired and the amount of rich cream to be 
used will be the amount of skim milk to be added 
to the rich cream to produce the desired test. 

Problem: 600 lbs. of 30 per cent cream is wanted. 
Having cream on hand testing 40 per cent, and skim- 
milk, find how many pounds of each are needed to 
produce 600 lbs of 30 per cent cream. 

Solution: 600 lbs. X 30 per cent-f-100=180 lbs. of 
butter fat in the quantity of cream desired. 

180 lbs.-f-40 per cent X 100=450 lbs. of 40 per 
cent cream to be used. 600 lbs. — 450 lbs.=150 lbs. 
of skim milk to be mixed with cream to reduce it 
to 30 per cent cream. 450 lbs. plus 150 lbs.=600 lbs. 
of cream testing 30 per cent. 

Proof: Butter fat in cream desired is (600X30) 
_i-100==180 lbs. Butter fat in mixture of 40 per cent 
cream and skim-milk is (450X40) -^100=180 lbs. 



STANBAEBIZATION OF CEEAM. 259 

Butter fat in skim-milk none. The butter fat in tlie 
desired cream and in the mixture are the same; 
therefore calculations are correct. 

In order to prove whether the calculations have 
been correctly made, determine the fat in the two 
mixtures, and the fat in the desired cream. If calcu- 
lations have been correctly made, both results should 
be the same. 

5. Three different methods which may be used 
to reduce the per cent of butter fat by adding skim- 
milk. 

(a) Rule I. Multiply the number of lbs. of cream 
to be diluted by the per cent of butter fat contained 
in the same, divide the product by 100. The quotient 
should then be multiplied by 100 and divided by the 
desired test. The difference between this result and 
the original amount of cream is the quantity of skim- 
milk to be added. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per cent 
butter fat is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding 
skim-milk. How many pounds of skim-milk must 
be added? 

Solution : 

1,000X30 

— =300 lbs. butter fat in 1,000 lbs. 30 per 

cent cream. 

300X100 

=1,200 lbs., total cream having the desired 



25 

per cent of butter fat. 

1,200—1,000=200 lbs. of skim-milk to be added to 
the original cream to reduce it to 25 per cent cream. 

(b) Rule II. Multiply the difference between the 



260 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

test of the original cream by the number of lbs. of 
cream and divide the product by 100. Divide the 
result by the desired test, multiply the quotient by 
100 and the result will be the number of pounds of 
skim-milk to be added to the cream to reduce the fat 
to the desired per cent. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per cent 
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding skim milk. 
How many pounds of skim-milk must be added ? 

Solution: 

30—25=5. 

1,000X5=5,000. 

5,000-f-100=50. 

50-f-25==2. 

2xl00=lbs. of skim-milk to be added to 1,000 lbs. 
of 30 per cent cream to reduce it to 25 per cent. 

(c) Rule III. Multiply the number of pounds of 
cream to be diluted by the per cent of butter fat 
in the same and divide the product by the desired 
test. Find the difference between the quotient and 
the number of pounds of skim-milk to be added. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per cent 
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by adding skim-milk. 
How many pounds of skim-milk must be added ? 

Solution: 

30X1,000 , . 
— =1,200, total pounds of cream, having 

the desired test. 

1^200—1,000=200 lbs. of skim-milk, to be added. 
47. When whole milk is used instead of skim-milk. 
The following rule and problem will illustrate 



STANDAEDIZATION OP CEEAM. 261 

the methods employed when whole milk is used 
instead of skim-milk for diluting cream : 

Rule in. Divide the difference between the test 
of the original cream and the desired test, by the 
difference between the desired test and the test of 
the milk to be used, and multiply the quotient by 
100. 

Problem: 1,000 lbs. of cream testing 30 per cent 
is to be reduced to 25 per cent by the addition of 
whole milk. How many pounds of milk testing 4 
per cent must be added to give the desired test? 

Selution: 

30—25=5; 25—4=21; 5^21=.238 lbs. of 4% 
milk to be added to every one lb. of 30% testing 
cream. To 1,000 lbs. 30% cream must be added 
.238X1.000=238 lbs. 4% testing milk. 

48. Standardizing whole milk. 

The principles involved in the foregoing problems 
may also be applied in standardizing milk, except 
cases where skim-milk or cream is to be extracted. 
A few problems will be sufficient to show the meth- 
ods which can be employed. 

The following rule may be employed when the 
milk is too low in per cent of butter fat and it is 
necessary to determine how many pounds of skim- 
milk must be extracted to produce the desired per 
cent of butter fat in the milk. 

(a) Rule : Divide the per cent of butter fat in the 
milk by the per cent of butter fat desired ; multiply 
the quotient by the original amount of milk and the 
result will be the number of pounds of milk testing 
the desired per cent. The difference between this 



262 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

result and the original amount of milk will be the 
quantity of skim-milk to be extracted. 

Problem: 2,000 lbs. of milk testing 3.5 per cent of 
butter fat is to be made to test 4 per cent. How 
many pounds of skim-milk must be extracted? 

Solution: 

3.5-^=.875. 

2,000X.875=1,750 lbs. of milk testing 4%. 

2,000—1,750=250 lbs. of skim-milk to be extracted. 

(b) When skim-milk is used to lower fat in milk. 

When reducing the fat content in milk by adding 
skim milk, the following rule may be used: 

. Rule : Multiply the milk by its per cent of butter 
fat, divide the product by the desired per cent of 
butter fat, multiply the quotient by 100 and the prod- 
uct will be the total amount of milk with the de- 
sired test. The difference between the original 
quantity and the total quantity will give the number 
of pounds of skim-milk to be added to produce the 
desired per cent of butter fat. 

Problem: 5,000 lbs. of milk testing 4.5 per cent 
is to be reduced to 3.8 per cent butter fat. How 
many pounds of skim-milk must be added to reduce 
the test to 3.8 per cent of butter fat? 

Solution: 

5,000X4.5=225 lbs. fat in milk. 

225-f-3.8=59.21. 

59.21X100=5,921. 

5,921—5,000=921 lbs. of skim-milk to be added to 
5,000 lbs. of 4.5% milk to reduce the test to 3.8%. 

The following solution of this problem may also 



STANDAEDIZATION OF CEEAM. 263 

be used: 4.5-^3.8X5,000=5,921 lbs., the total 
amount of milk testing 3.8 per cent butter fat. 

5,921—5,000=921, the whole amount of skim-milk 
added to reduce the test to 3.8%. 

These few problems will probably show that stand- 
ardization is not too complicated to be made use of 
in every cream and milk plant, where milk or cream 
of different richness is mixed and in this manner 
the per cent of butter fat is raised or lowered. Its 
economical and commercial advantages can not be 
questioned; and since we are legally and morally 
bound not to take advantage of the public, its use 
seems to be indispensable. The simplicity with 
which the desired richness may be calculated is ob- 
vious. 

49. How to use viscogen as a thickening agent. 

Where viscogen is employed as a thickening agent, 
the following rule will help to simplify the work: 

Rule: Multiply the amount of cream to be treated 
with viscogen by two-thirds of the number of cubic 
centimeters used to neutralize the acidity in one 
pound of cream. The product divided by 950 cubic 
centimeters (the number of c. c. in one quart) will 
equal the number of quarts of viscogen to be added 
to the cream to be treated. 

Problem: If 6 cubic centimeters of viscogen will 
neutralize the acidity in one pound of cream, how 
many quarts of viscogen must be added to 800 lbs. 
of cream? 

Solution: Six c. e. of viscogen wiU neutralize 
acidity in one pound of cream. 



264 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

% of 6 c. c=4 c. c. the quantity of viscogen to be 
added to one pound of cream. 

800 lbs.X4=3,200, total number of cubic centime- 
ters of viscogen to be added to 800 lbs. of cream. 

3,200 lbs.-^950=3.3 plus, the number of quarts 
of viscogen to be added to cream. 

50. A few suggestions on the use of viscogen in 
commercial cream. 

The use of viscogen as a thickening agent has both 
advantages and disadvantages. Great care should 
be exercised in its use, which must always be regu- 
lated according to the condition of the cream. When 
too much is used, the cream has a disagreeable, dis- 
gusting flavor and aroma, and when such cream gets 
a little old, it is nothing short of rotten. There is 
no other defect in cream, whatever its source, which 
equals the rank flavor caused by too much viscogen. 
In practice it is well to use only one half the quantity 
necessary to neutralize the acidity of cream. When 
cream is very sweet, having an acidity of .1 per cent, 
it is well to add only % of the quantity necessary 
to neutralize the acidity of the cream. The poorer 
the cream and the higher its acidity, the greater is 
the quantity of viscogen which may be added to it. 
When viscogen is properly used, it serves a very good 
purpose and where its use is allowed by law it is de- 
sirable to use it. 

(b) Butter fat values. 

51. Next to the values of standardization of milk 
and cream for city supply is the process of ascer- 
taining the relative value of butter fat in milk when 
sold in the form of milk, cream and butter at retail 



STANDAEDIZATION OF CEEAM. 265 

prices, as compared with the wholesale butter fat 
value of milk. 

In the following the cost of manufacture and the 
expenses incident to selling the product will not be 
considered, the aim being to point out the possible 
value of butter fat as sold in different products. 

Cream or milk is usually sold both by measure and 
weight. The weight of cream varies according to 
its fat content. Pure butter fat has. a specific 
gravity of .9 against 1, the specific gravity of water ; 
consequently the richer the cream the lighter it is, 
and the thinner it is the heavier it is. Generally 
speaking the cream usually put upon the market 
weighs about 8.3 lbs. per gallon. Cream contain- 
ing from 18 to 22 per cent butter fat weighs a 
little more than this, while cream testing from 
25 to 40 per cent weighs a little less per gallon. 
Milk does not vary in weight to any appreciable 
amount, therefore, no difference in weight of milk 
of different richness is made. 

The explanation of a few problems is necessary 
CQ order to illustrate methods that may be used in 
determining the approximate amount of butter which 
can be made from a given quantity of milk and the 
possible value of the butter fat when sold in the 
form of butter, cream and milk; these problems to 
be based upon an assumed retail price. Problems 
are also necessary to show the amount of butter fat 
in a quart or a gallon of cream of any richness and 
the price of cream according to the price of butter 
fat. 



266 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

52. Problems with explanations. 

I, Find the quantity of butter which may be made 
from 5,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 per cent butter fat ; 
also find the value of butter when the selling price 
is 22c a pound. 

Rule : Multiply the amount of milk by its test, in- 
crease the product by ^ of itself and multiply the 
sum by the price per pound. 

Solution: 

5,000 lbs. X. 04=200 lbs. butter fat. 

200 lbs.Xi=33V3 lbs. increase or overrun. 

200 lbs.+33y3 lbs.=233y3 lbs. of butter made. 

2331/3 lbs.X22c=$51.33, value of butter. 

Problem II. Find the value of the butter fat in 
5,000 lbs. of 4 per cent milk when sold in the form 
of cream at the following prices: 20% cream at 20c, 
24% cream at 25c per quart and 30 per cent crean? 
at 35c per quart. The weight of cream per gallon 
being as follows: 20% cream, about 8.4 lbs.; 24% 
cream, 8.3 lbs. ; 30% cream, 8.3 lbs. 

Rule: Multiply test of cream by the weight per 
gallon and multiply the amount of milk by its test; 
divide the latter by the former and multiply the 
quotient by the price per gallon. 

Solution (1). To find the value of milk when 20 
per cent cream sells for 80c per gallon or 20c per 
quart: 

20%.X8.4=168-f-100=1.68 lbs. butter fat in 1 gal- 
Ion of cream. 

5,000 X .04=200 lbs. butter fat. 

200-f-1.68X 100=119 gallons of 20% cream. 

119X80 cents=$95.20, value of 5,000 lbs. of milk. 



STANDAEDIZATION OF CREAM. 267 

Solution (2). To find the value of the milk when 
24 per cent cream is sold for 25c per quart or $1 per 
gallon. 

24%X8.3=199.2. 

5,000 lbs. X. 04=200 lbs. butter fat in milk. 

199.2-f-100=1.99 plus lbs. butter fat in 1 gallon 
of cream. 

200-^1.99X100=100.5 gallons of 24% cream. 

100.5 X$1.00=$100.50, value of 5,000 lbs. of milk. 

Solution (3). To find the value of the milk when 
30 per cent cream is sold for 35c per quart or $1.40 
per gallon. 

30% X 8.3=249. 

5,00OX. 04=200 lbs. butter fat in milk. 

249-^100=2.49 lbs. of fat in 1 gallon of cream. 

200-f-2.49=80.4 gallons of 30% cream. 

80.4X1.40=$112.56, value of 5,000 lbs. of milk. 

If 5,000 lbs. of 4% milk were sold in the form of 
milk we find the values to be as follows : 

5,000 lbs. milk-^8.5 lbs. (weight of 1 gallon) = 
588.2 gallons. 

588.2X20 cents=$117.64, value of milk. 

53. Comparative values. 

When sold as butter at 22c per lb., value $ 51.33 

"When sold as 20% cream at 80c per gallon, 

value 95.20 

When sold as 24% cream at $1.00 per gallon, 

value , 100.50 

When sold as 30% cream at $1.40 per gallon, 

value 112.56 

When sold as milk at 20c per gallon, value. . . 117.64 



268 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

From the table it will readily be seen that milk 
when sold in the form of milk has the highest market 
value. However, we must also consider that in mar- 
keting milk there are many expenses. There are 
losses in selling, and when the bottling system is 
used there is additional expense of this process, 
together with the loss from breakage of bottles, etc. 
The washing and sterilizing of the bottles is also 
an item which must not be overlooked. When cream 
is the main article sold in a city milk supply plant, 
and some butter is made, the buttermilk and skim 
milk can in many cases be disposed of to great ad- 
vantage. The skim-milk can be made into cottage 
cheese and the buttermilk sold either plain or 
creamed. There is sometimes quite a demand for 
creamed buttermilk, especially during the summer 
months. 

54. To find the value of a pound of butter fat when 
cream sells at 25c per quart or $1 per gallon proceed 
as follows: Multiply the test of the cream by the 
weight per gallon and divide the product by 100. 
Divide the price per gallon by this quotient and the 
result will be the price of 1 lb. of butter fat. 24 X 
8.3=1.99 lbs. fat in 1 gallon of 24% cream. $1.00 
H-1.99=50c, price per pound of butter fat. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Problems Relating to the RtecEiviNG and 
Separating of Milk. 

55. To find the amount of butter fat in milk. 

Problem: How many pounds of butter fat are 
there in 30,000 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent? 

Rule. Multiply the number of pounds of milk by 
its test, and divide the result by 100. This will give 
the number of pounds of butter fat in the milk. 

Solution. 30,000. X4=120,000. : 120,000.-f-100= 
1,200. lbs. 

Explanation: Every 100 lbs. of milk contains 4 
per cent, .04 or 4/100 of butter fat. When every 
hundred pounds of milk contains four pounds of 
butter fat, there will be as many pounds of butter 
fat in 30,000 lbs. of milk as 100 is contained in 
(30,000X4) or 1,200 lbs. 

Problems for Practice. 

(1). How many pounds of butter fat in: 
8,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 %? 

Ans. 320. lbs. 
(2). 10,500 lbs. of milk testing 3.5%? 

Ans. 367.5 lbs. 
(3). 18,750 lbs. of milk testing 3.9%? 

Ans. 731.25 lbs. 
(4). 50,000 lbs. of milk testing 3.8%? 

Ans. 1,900. lbs. 
(5). 100,000 lbs. of milk testing 4.1%? 

Ans. 4,100. lbs. 



270 MODEBN BUTTEE MAKING. 

56. To find butter fat losses in skim milk. 

Problem: How much butter fat is lost in 25,000 
lbs. of skim milk testing .09 per cent? 

Rule: Multiply the skim milk pounds by its test, 
divide the result by 100 and point off as per rules 
5 and 9. 

Solution : 25,000X. 09=2,250 ; 2,250^100=22.5 
lbs. Ans. 

Explanation: Every 100 lbs. of skim milk con- 
tains .0009 or 9/10,000 or .09 per cent butter fat. If 
every 100 lbs. skim milk contains .09 per cent but- 
ter fat, then 25,000. lbs. will contain 25,000X.09% 
or 2,250.00. Dividing this by 100 gives the result, 
22.50 lbs. 

Problems for Practice. 

How many pounds of butter fat are lost in : 

1. 7,500. lbs. of skim milk testing .06%? 

Ans. 4.5 lbs. 

2. 10,500. lbs. of skim milk testing .09%? 

Ans. 9.45 lbs. 

3. 25,780. lbs. of skim milk testing .15%? 

Ans. 38.67 lbs. 

4. 30,000 lbs. of skim milk testing .03%? 

Ans. 9. lbs. 

5. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .09% ? 

Ans. 27. lbs. 

6. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .1 % ? 

Ans. 30. lbs. 

7. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .2 %? 

Ans. 60. lbs. 

8. 30,000. lbs. of skim milk testing .3 % ? 

Ans. 90. lbs. 

Note.— Losses of butter fat in buttermilk are determined the same way as 
losses of butter fat in skim milk and come under the lame rule. 



CREAMEEY PEOBLEMS. 271 

57. To find the per cent of cream from milk. 
Problem: 5,000 lbs. of milk, delivered 800 lbs. of 

cream. Find the per cent of cream from milk. 

Rule: Divide the total cream pounds by the total 
milk pounds, multiply the quotient by 100; the re- 
sult is the per cent of cream from milk. 
Solution : 800^5000=.16 X 100=16 % . Ans. 
or 800x100-^-5000=16%. Ans. 

or 800/5000 reduced = 4/25, expressed 

decimally 4/25 =.16 or 16%. 

Explanation: When 5,000 lbs. milk give 800 lbs. 
cream, 1 lb. of milk will give as many pounds as 
5^000 is contained in 800 lbs. cream, which is .16; 
100 lbs. milk will give IOOX.16 or 16 lbs. or 16%. 
Ans. 

Problems for Practice. 

What is the per cent of cream from: 

1. 8,780 lbs. milk delivering 900 lbs. cream? 

Ans. 10.25%). 

2. 10,900 lbs. milk delivering 1,275 lbs. cream? 

Ans. 11.69%. 

3. 20,785 lbs. milk delivering 3,750 lbs. cream? 

Ans. 13.23%. 

4. 35,000 lbs. milk delivering 7,000 lbs. cream? 

Ans. 20. %. 

5. 50,000 lbs. milk delivering 9,500 lbs. cream? 

Ans. 19. %. 

58. To find the per cent of cream from milk, when 
the amount of skim milk and cream separated are 
known. 

Problem: What is the per cent of cream from 



272 MODERN BUTTEE MAKING. 

milk when a separator delivers 10 lbs. of cream to 
every 40 lbs. of skim milk? 

Rule: Add the cream and skim milk separated 
at one time, together; divide the cream pounds by 
the sum, and multiply the quotient by 100. The re- 
sult will be the per cent of cream from milk. 

Solution: 10+40=50; 10^50=.2% cream from 
1 lb. milk. 

Or 10+40=50; 10X100-^-50=20% cream from 
300 lbs. of milk. 

For every 50 lbs. of milk we get 10 lbs. of cream 
and we get as man pounds of cream for every pound 
of milk as 50 is contained in 10, which is .2, and 
from every 100 lbs. of milk we get 100 X.2 or 20 
lbs. or 20%. 

Problems for Practice. 

What is the per cent of cream from milk when a 
separator delivers: 

1. 10 lbs. of cream and 35 lbs. of skim milk? 

Ans. 22+%. 

2. 12 lbs. of cream and 60 lbs. of skim milk? 

Ans. 16+%. 

3. 15 lbs. of cream and 75 lbs. of skim milk? 

Ans. 17—%. 

4. 20 lbs. of cream and 88 lbs. of skim milk? 

Ans. 18+%. 

5. 24 lbs. of cream and 95 lbs. of skim milk? 

Ans. 20+%. 

59. To find the amount of cream of any desired 
test which milk of any richness can yield. 



CEEAMEEY PEOBLEMS. 273 

Problem: How many pounds of 20 per cent test- 
ing cream will 800 lbs. of 4 per cent milk yield ? 

Rule : Divide the milk test by the cream test and 
multiply the quotient by 100. Multiply this result 
by the number of pounds of milk; divide result by 
100. The quotient is the number of pounds of 
cream. 

Salution: 4/20=.2; .2X100=20; or 4/20X100= 
20%; (800X20)-f-100=160 lbs. Ans. 
Milk. lbs. Milk test. Cream test. 



or 800 + 4 -^-:20— 160 cream 

lbs. Ans. 

Problems for Practice. 

How much cream can be obtained from the fol- 



lowing : 








Milk lbs. 


Milk test. 


Cream test. 




1. 255 


4 % 


20% 


Ans. 51. lbs. 


2. 340 


5 % 


30% 


Ans. 56.6 lbs. 


3. 3,250 


3.5% 


18% 


Ans. 631.9 lbs, 


4. 10,550 


3.8% 


25% 


Ans. 1,603.6 lbs. 


5. 20,670 


4.2% 


40% 


Ans. 2,170.3 lbs. 



60. To find the amount of cream when the per cent 
of cream from milk, and the milk pounds, are known. 

Problem: The per cent of cream from 35,000 lbs. 
of 4 per cent milk is 22.5. Find the amount of cream. 

Rule: Multiply the milk pounds by the per cent 
of cream from milk and divide the result by 100. 
The quotient will be the cream pounds. 

Solution: 35,000X22.5=787,500; 787,500-^100= 
7,875; or (35,000^100) X 22.5=7,875 lbs. Ans. 

19 



274 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

Explanation : Every 100 lbs. of milk delivers 22.5 
lbs. of cream. Therefore, there are as many times 
22.5 lbs. of cream delivered as 100 is contained in 
35,000, which is 350; 350X22.5=7,875 lbs., the total 
amount of cream. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find the amount of cream when the per cent of 
cream from: 

1. 5,507 lbs. of milk is 10.5% ? Ans. 578.23 lbs. 

2. 10,780 lbs. of milk is 12.7% ? Ans. 1,369.06 lbs. 

3. 15,872 lbs. of milk is 15.2% ? Ans. 2,412.54 lbs. 

4. 20,975 lbs. of milk is 20.1% ? Ans. 4,215.9 lbs. 

5. 40,435 lbs. of milk is 23.3%? Ans. 9,421.35 lbs. 

61. To find the approximate amount of cream, 
knowing the test of cream, and the amount and test 
of the whole milk. Skim milk losses are l^i per 
cent of the total fat in the milk. 

Problem: What is the amount of cream received 
from 25,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 per cent, the cream 
testing 30 per cent and the butter milk losses being 
1^4 pel* cent of the fat in the milk? 

Ride: I. Multiply the amount of milk by its test, 
and multiply this result by the per cent of loss. 

II. From the total fat in the milk, subtract the 
loss, and divide the remainder by the cream test, 
multiply the quotient by 100 and the result will be 
the amount of cream. 

25,000X4%=1,000 lbs.; l,000XliA%=12.50 loss. 

1,000—12.50=987.5 ; (987.5-^30) X 100=3,291.66 
lbs. cream. Ans. 

Explanation: First find the amount of butter fat 



CEEAMEEY PEOBLEMS. 275 

in the milk and from that subtract loss, which is 
12.5; this leaves 987.5 lbs. butter fat in the cream. 
Each 100 lbs. of cream contains 30 lbs. butter fat, 
and there will be as many 100 lbs. of cream as 30 
is contained in 987.5, and the total cream will be 
100 times this number, or 3,291.66 lbs. cream. 
Problems for Practice. 
Find the approximate amount of cream when 
losses incident to separating are in each case 1^4 V^^ 
cent of the total fat in milk. 



Milk lbs. 


Milk test. 


Cream test. 


Cream lbs. Ans. 


1. 12,760 


4 % 


25% 


2,016 


2. 17,590 


3.9% 


20% 


3,387 


3. 25,300 


3.8% 


18% 


5,211 


4. 50,000 


4.1% 


35% 


5,784 


5. 50,000 


4.1% 


50% 


4,048 



62. To find amount of skim milk from any quan- 
tity of milk. 

Problem: A creamery receives 24,000 lbs. of 
whole milk; 80 lbs. of skim milk out of every 100 
lbs. of milk are returned to patrons. How much 
skim milk does the creamery return to patrons! 

Rule: Multiply milk pounds by per cent of skim 
milk returned and divide result by 100. The quo- 
tient is number of skim milk pounds. 

Solution: 24,000X80=1,920,000; 1,920,000-^100 
=19,200 lbs. Ans. 

Explanation: For every 100 lbs. of whole milk 
delivered the patron gets 80 lbs. of skim milk. The 
total skim milk will be (24,000x80)-^100=19,200 
lbs. 



276 MODEEN BUTTEB MAKING. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find amount of skim milk returned to patrons 
when : 

Skim milk Pounds 

Milk received returned returned 

1. 10,000 lbs. 80% 8,000 lbs. 

2. 15,780 lbs. 85% 13,413 lbs. 

3. 20,340 lbs. 90% 18,306 lbs. 

4. 50,590 lbs. 75% 37,942 lbs. 

5. 50,590 lbs. 80% 40,482 lbs. 

63. To find the approximate test of cream, know- 
ing the amount and test of milk, the pounds of 
cream separated, and allowing 1^4 per cent me- 
chanical loss on the total butter fat. 

Problem: 45,000 lbs. of milk testing 4 per cent 
gave 3,500 lbs. of cream. Find the test of cream. 

Rule: Find the total butter fat in milk and mul- 
tiply this by the per cent of loss. Subtract the loss 
from the total butter fat and divide the remainder 
by the number of pounds of cream. Multiply the 
quotient by 100 and the result will be the test of 
the cream. 

Solution: 45,000 X 4 %-r-100=l,800; (1,800X1%) 
X100=22.5; 1,800—22.5=1,777.5; (1,777.5-^3,500) 
X 100=50.6%. Ans. 

Explanation: From the total butter fat in the 
milk we subtract the loss. Then we divide the re- 
maining butter fat by the total amount of cream. 
This gives the butter fat in one pound of cream, and 
100 lbs. of cream will test 100 times the butter fat 
in one pound of cream, or 50.8 per cent. 





CREAMEEY PROBLEMS. 


277 




Problems for Practice. 




Find the test of cream 


when: 




Cream 






Cream test. 


Separated. 


Milk lbs 


Milk test. 


Ans. 


1. 350 lbs. 


4,000 


4 % 


45.1% 


2. 1,500 lbs. 


9,500 


3.9% 


24.3% 


3. 2,800 lbs. 


20,780 


4 % 


29.3% 


4. 5,550 lbs. 


45,000 


3.8% 


30.4% 


5. 5,550 lbs. 


45,000 


3.9% 


31.2% 



64. To find the approximate average test of skim 
milk, knowing the total butter fat in milk and in 
cream separated, and knowing the number of pounds 
of skim milk. 

Problem: Milk contained 2,540. lbs. butter fat, 
and the cream contained 2,500. lbs. butter fat. There 
were 56,108. lbs. skim milk. Find the test of skim 
milk. 

Rule: Divide the difference in the amount of 
butter fat in milk and cream by the skim milk 
pounds, and multiply quotient by 100. The result 
is the test of the skim milk. 

Solution: 2,540—2,500=40; (40-f-56,108)Xl00= 
.071%. Ans. 

Explanation: First find the difference, which is 
40 lbs. Then by dividing this by the number of 
pounds of skim milk, and multiplying by 100, we get 
the test per hundred pounds or in per cent. 



278 



MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

Problems for Practice. 



Find the test of skim milk in the following : 
Fat in milk. Fat in cream. Lbs. skim milk. Ans. 



1. 


295. lbs. 


290. lbs. 


3,120. 


.16% 


2. 


900. lbs. 


892. lbs. 


17,460. 


.046% 


3. 


3,250. lbs. 


3,225. lbs. 


39,812. 


.062% 


4. 


5,675. lbs. 


5,520. lbs. 


133,440. 


.11% 


5. 


5,675. lbs. 


5,440. lbs. 


133,440. 


.17% 



65. Table showing relative loss in skim milk at 
25c per lb. of butter fat. Average skim milk test .05 
to .03 per cent. 

TaUe SJioidng Relative Loss in Skimming at 25 cents per 

lb. of Butter Fat. Average Skim Milk Tests 

.05 to .3%. 



Skim milk lbs. 
Daily 


Test 

% 


Loss 
in lbs. 


At 25c per 
lb. daily 


10,000 


.05% 


5. 


$1.25 


10,000 


.08% 


8. 


2.00 


10,000 


.10% 


10. 


2.50 


10,000 


.13% 


13. 


3.25 


10,000 


.15% 


15. 


3.75 


10,000 


.18% 


18. 


4.50 


10,000 


.20% 


20. 


5.00 


10,000 


.23% 


23. 


5.75 


10,000 


.25% 


25. 


6.25 


10,000 


.28% 


28. 


7.00 


10,000 


.30% 


30. 


7.50 



CREAMEEY PROBLEMS. 279 

The above table should serve to bring out more 
clearly the fact that in creamery work, not unlike 
brokerage, it is the fractional parts which are very 
important and essential factors in making for the 
success or failure of the business. 

The same comparative losses occur in buttermilk, 
therefore, it is just as important to churn so as to 
reduce buttermilk fat losses to the minimum. 

Q6. Promiscuous problems. 

1. A creamery receives 2,480 lbs. of milk testing 
4.2 per cent. The skim milk is 80 per cent of the 
whole and tests .1 per cent fat. What is the (a) 
per cent of cream taken, and (b) the test of the 
ereaml Ans. (a) 20 per cent; (b) 22.6 per cent. 

2. A creamery receives 30,000 lbs. of milk testing 
3 J per cent, of which 85 per cent is skim milk test- 
ing .08 per cent. Find (a) the fat lost in skim milk, 
(b) test of cream, (c) per cent of cream from milk, 
(d) total weight of cream. Ans. (a) 20.4 lbs.; 
(b) 24.21 per cent; (c) 15 per cent; (d) 4,500 lbs. 

3. At a creamery 80 per cent of the milk is skim 
milk, testing .05 per cent, and is returned to the 
patrons. The total skim milk is 2,880 lbs. Find the 

(a) total number of pounds of milk received, and 

(b) the total fat lost in the skim milk. Ans. (a) 
3,600 lbs.; (b) 1.44 lbs. 

4. Cream tests 20 per cent butter fat and the total 
milk, which is 35,000 lbs., tests 4 per cent. Find 
(a) the per cent of cream taken from the milk, 
and (b) the total weight of cream, allowing a loss 
of 1 per cent butter fat in skimming. Ans. (a) 
19.8 per cent; (b) 6,930 lbs. 



280 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

5. Cream tests 30 per cent, the total weight is 
2,250 lbs. ; 10 lbs. of fat were lost in skimming. Find 
(a) the per cent of loss in skimming on the total 
butter fat in milk, (b) the number of pounds of 
milk which tests 4 per cent, and (c) the per cent 
of cream from milk. Ans. (a) 1.5 per cent; (b) 
17,125 lbs.; (c) 13.2— per cent. 

6. A gathered cream plant receives 5,000 lbs. of 
cream daily, testing 32 per cent butter fat, and 
makes 1,850 lbs. butter. To the cream is added 800 
lbs. of skim milk starter. The buttermilk tests .2 
per cent. Find (a) loss of fat in buttermilk, (b) 
per cent of buttermilk from cream, (c) per cent of 
loss of butter fat on total fat in cream. Ans. (a) 
7.9 lbs.; (b) 68+ per cent; (c) .49 per cent. 

7. What will be the (a) test of cream, (b) per 
cent of cream from milk, and (c) test of skim milk 
when 50,000 lbs. of 4 per cent milk are received 
and the skim milk is 85 per cent of the whole; al- 
lowing a loss of 20 lbs. of butter fat in the skim 
milk? Ans. (a) 26.4 per cent; (b) 15 per cent; 
(c) .047 per cent. 

8. A creamery in good running order loses 1% 
per cent of the total fat in milk. When separating 
is carelessly done a creamery may lose 3% per cent 
of the total fat in milk. When a creamery received 
100,000 lbs. of milk per day testing 4 per cent and 
the cream is 12 per cent of the milk, find (a) the 
difference in the test of the cream, and (b) the dif- 
ference in loss when butter fat sells at 30 cents per 
pound. 



CREAMEEY PROBLEMS. 281 

Ans. (a) When loss is 3I/2 per cent instead of 1% 
per cent, cream tests .67 per cent less. 

Ans. (b) When loss is 3I/2 per cent instead of 1% 
per cent, loss at 30c per lb. is $24.00 per day. 

B. Problems Pertaining to Cream Ripening. 

67. To find how many pounds of starter should be 
added to cream of any richness to reduce it to any 
desired per cent of butter fat, assuming that a skim 
milk starter is used. 

Problem: How many pounds of starter will it re- 
quire to reduce 3,000 lbs. of 30 per cent cream to 
25 per cent cream? 

Rule. I. Multiply the cream pounds to be re- 
duced by its test and divide the result by 100. The 
result will be the total fat in the richer cream. 

II. Divide the total butter fat by the desired test 
of cream and multiply the quotient by 100. From 
this result subtract the cream pounds to be diluted. 
The difference will be the amount of starter to be 
added. 

Solution: 3,000X30-^100=900. lbs. butter fat; 
(900-^25) X100=3,600— 3,000=600 lbs. Ans. 

Explanation: By subtracting 25 from 30, we get 
5, which is % of the test of the desired cream. The 
same relation exists between the amount of cream to 
be diluted and the amount of starter necessary to 
dilute it. Therefore, it must be increased by % of 
itself, or 600 lbs. of a skim milk starter. 



2 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find the amount of starter to be added to 





Cream lbs. 


Cream test. 


Reduced to. Ans. 


1. 


3,275 lbs. 


30% 


25% 


675 lbs. 


2. 


4,560 lbs. 


40% 


30% 


1,520 lbs. 


3. 


6,780 lbs. 


50% 


35%. 


2,905 lbs. 


4. 


10,500 lbs. 


30% 


25% 


2,100 lbs. 


5. 


10,500 lbs. 


30% 


20% 


5,250 lbs. 



68. To find the number of pounds of starter to be 
added to cream, when the per cent of starter is 
known. 

Problem: 20% of starter is to be added to 3,080 
lbs. of cream. How many pounds of starter will it 
require ? 

Rule: Multiply the cream pounds by the per cent 
of starter and divide the result by 100. The quotient 
will be the number of pounds of starter required. 

Solution: 3,080X20=61,600; 61,600-f-100=616. 
Ans. 

Explanation : By adding 20 per cent of starter we 
add 20 lbs. to every hundred pounds of cream. 
Therefore we must add as many times 20 lbs. as 
there are hundreds in the amount of cream (3,080), 
or 616 lbs. 

Problems for Practice. 

How many pounds of starter are required when: 

1. 10% of starter is to be added to 2,570 lbs. 
cream. Answer, 257 lbs. 

2. 15% of starter is to be added to 3,800 lbs. 
cream. Answer, 570 lbs. 



CEEAMEEY PEOBLEMS. 283 

3. 25% of starter is to be added to 4,800 lbs. 
cream. Answer, 1,200 lbs. 

4. 30% of starter is to be added to 5,780 lbs. 
cream. Answer, 1,734 lbs. 

5. 50% of starter is to be added to 8,500 lbs. 
cream. Answer, 4,250 lbs. 

60. To find the per cent of starter added when any 
quantity of starter was added to any quantity of 
cream. 

Problem: 670 lbs. starter were added to cream, 
making a total of 3,200 lbs. of cream. What per cent 
of starter was added ? 

Rule: From the number of pounds of cream sub- 
tract the number of pounds of starter, divide the 
difference into the number of pounds of starter; 
multiply the quotient by 100 and the result is the 
per cent of starter. 

Solution : 3,200—670=2,530 ; (670^2,530) X 100= 
26.5%. Ans. 

Explanation: When any amount of starter has 
been added to cream we first subtract the number 
of pounds of starter from the total number of pounds 
given. This gives the number of pounds of cream 
before the starter was added. By dividing the num- 
ber of pounds of cream into the number of pounds 
of starter and multiplying by 100 we get the per cent 
of starter. 

What is the per cent of starter when : 

1. 1,600 lbs. of cream contain 300 lbs. of start- 
er? Ans. 23.07%. 

2. 4,000 lbs. of cream contain 600 lbs. of start- 
er? Ans. 17.6%. 



284 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

3. 4,500 lbs. of cream contain 800 lbs. of start- 
er? Ans. 21.6%. 

4. 30,000 lbs. of cream contain 6,000 lbs. of start- 
er? Ans. 25%. 

5. 30,000 lbs. of cream contain 7,600 lbs. of start- 
er? Ans. 33.4%. 

70. Knowing the acidity of both cream and starter 
find the acidity after starter is added to cream. 

Problem: The acidity of the starter is .70% ; the 
acidity of the cream (100 lbs.) is .22%. 30% (or 30 
lbs.) of starter is added to every 100 lbs. of cream. 
Find acidity of cream after starter is added. 

Rule: To the acidity in the cream add the acidity 
in the per cent of starter (30 lbs.) to be added, and 
divide the sum by 100+the per cent to be added. 
Multiply the quotient by 100 and the result will be 
the acidity of cream after starter is added. 

Solution : (70X3O)h-100=.21 ; .21+.22=.4i3 ; 
.43-f-130=.0033; .0033X100=.33%. Ans. 

Explanation: 100 lbs. cream tests .22% acidity. 
100 lbs. starter tests .70%. We add 30% or 30 lbs. 
of starter to each 100 lbs. of cream. We have .22% 
acidity in each 100 lbs. cream. We have 30 lbs. of 
starter at .70% acidity=.21 acidity. The total acidi- 
ty is .43. The total cream and starter is 130 lbs. 
and the total acidity of cream and starter is .43; 
43-^130=.0033. .0033X100==.33%, the acidity of 
100 lbs. of cream after the starter is added. 



CREAMERY PROBLEMS. 285 

Problems for Practice. 

Find acidity of cream when the per cent of start- 
er to be added is : 





Starter. 


Acidity. 


Cream Acidity. 


Ans. 


1. 


10% 


.65% 


.25% 


.286% 


2. 


15% 


.75% 


.20% 


.27 % 


3. 


20% 


.60% 


.23%. 


.29 % 


4. 


25% 


.68% 


.20% 


.296% 


5. 


30% 


.70% 


.26% 


.361% 



71. To find acidity of cream when sweet milk or 
water is used to reduce acidity. 

Problem: What will be the acidity of cream hav- 
ing .65% acidity, when (a) 12% of water is added; 
(b) when 12% of milk with an acidity of .15% is 
added? 

Rule I. Divide the per cent of acidity in cream 
to be diluted, by 100+the per cent of water to be 
added. Multiply the quotient by 100, and the result 
will be the per cent of acidity after diluting. 

Rule n. Multiply the per cent of milk to be 
added by its acidity. To this add the acidity in per 
cent in the cream to be diluted ; divide the sum by 
100-f-the per cent of milk to be added and multiply 
the quotient by 100. The result is the acidity of the 
diluted cream. 

Solution: (a) .65^(100+12) =.0058; .0058X100 
=.58%, Ans. (b) .65+(12X.15)=.668; .668-f-112= 
.0059; .0059X100=.59%. Ans. 

Explanation: It will be seen that when we add 
12% we add 12 lbs. to each 100 lbs. of cream. This 
makes 112 lbs. of cream. When the addition is 



286 MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 

water, 112 lbs. of the cream contains .65% acid and 
100 lbs. of the cream will test as many per cent as 
112 is contained in .65%. This quotient multiplied 
by 100 equals .58%. When we add milk which has 
some acidity, we must first find out how much acidity 
is added to the cream. This we find by multiplying 
the amount added by its test. "We add the test of 
acidity of the cream and the acidity in the milk, 
which in this case is .018+.65, which equals .668. 
This is the acidity of 112 lbs. of diluted cream. To 
find the per cent of acidity we divide .668 by 112 
which gives us .0059. .0059X100=.59%. Ans. 

Problems for Pracjtice. 

Find the per cent of acidity in cream when: 

1. 10% water is added to cream having .75% 
acid. Ans. (a) .68+%, (b) .69%. 

2. 15% water is added to cream having .80% 
acid. Ans. (a) .695%, (b) .715%,. 

3. 20% water is added to cream having .75% 
acid. Ans. (a) .625%, (b) .65%. 

4. 10% water is added to cream having .65% 
acid. Ans. (a) .59%, (b) .60%. 

5. 15% water is added to cream having .65% 
acid. Ans. (a) .56%, (b) .58%?. 

When milk with an acidity of .15% was used 
instead of water in the above problems the answers 
marked b show the result. 

72. Promiscuous problems. 

1. A creamery receives daily 1,500 lbs. of cream 
testing 38% butter fat. The test is to be reduced to 
30% by adding a skim milk starter, (a) How many 



CREAMEEY PROBLEMS. 287 

pounds of starter must be added"? (b) What per 
cent of starter is added? Ans. (a) 400 lbs., (b) 
26%%. 

2. The average test of 20,000 lbs. of hand sep- 
arator cream is 30%. After adding all the rinsings 
the test is 291/2 %• The test for churning should be 
25%. Find (a) the amount of rinse water added; 
(b) amount of starter required for reducing test to 
25%. Ans. (a) 339 lbs.; (b) 3,661 lbs. 

3. The manager of a creamery notified the but- 
ter maker that all cream should have not more than 
.5% acidity at the time of churning. A lot of cream, 
on arrival at the creamery had an average acidity 
of .62% and tested 40% butter fat. Water was to be 
used as a diluent. Find amount of water necessary 
to reduce the acidity of (a) 2,200 lbs. of cream; (b) 
2,000 lbs. of cream to .5% acidity. Ans. (a) 528 
lbs. ; (b) 480 lbs. 

4. 1,200 lbs. of 40%. testing cream tested 25% 
after the starter was added. Find (a) amount and 
(b) per cent of starter. Ans. (a) 720 lbs.; (b) 60%. 

5. A creamery receives 50,000 lbs. of 4% milk and 
20,000 lbs. of 35% cream. 2% of the fat in the milk 
was lost in skimming. After mixing the cream sep- 
arated from milk with cream received the test was 
37% fat. Find amount of cream separated and 
amount of starter necessary to reduce the test of 
the cream to 32% fat. Ans. Separated cream, 4,216 
lbs. ; starter necessary, 8,000 lbs. 

73r Problems bearing on the manufacture of butter. 
To find the amount of butter fat lost in butter- 



288 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

milk, when the number of pounjds of cream and ibut^ 
ter are known. 

Problem: 980 lbs. of butter were made from 3,200 
lbs. of cream; buttermilk tested .2 per cent. What 
was the loss in butter fat? 

Rule: From pounds of cream subtract pounds of 
butter made ; multiply remainder by buttermilk test 
and divide product by 100. The quotient will be 
pounds butter fat lost. 

Solution: 3,200—980=2,220 lbs. buttermilk; (2,- 
220X.20)-^100=4.44 lbs. butter fat lost. 

Explanation : Aside from the water used for rins- 
ing cream utensils, the difference between the 
amount of cream churned and butter made will give 
the pounds of buttermilk. This multiplied by the 
test and divided by 100 will equal pounds of butter 
fat lost. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find pounds of butter fat lost. 

Butter lbs. Cream lbs. B. M. test. Ans. 

1. 995 lbs. 3,500 lbs. .20% 5.+lbs. 

2. 2,550 lbs. 9,670 lbs. .15% 10.6 lbs. 

3. 8,700 lbs. 20,675 lbs. .10% 11.9 lbs. 

4. 9,250 lbs. 25,456 lbs. .05% 8.1 lbs. 

5. 9,250 lbs. 25,456 lbs. .15% 24.2 lbs. 

74. To find the per cent of fat in buttermilk when 
the pounds of cream, its test, the per cent of fat in 
butter and the number of pounds of butter are given. 

Problem: 3,540 lbs. of 30% cream made 1,290 lbs. 
butter with a fat content of 82%. What is the test 
of the buttermilk? 



CEEAMERY PROBLEMS. 289 

Rule I. Multiply the number of pounds of cream 
by its test and from the result subtract the result 
obtained by multiplying the pounds of butter by the 
per cent of fat it contains. 

Rule II. Subtract the number of pounds of butter 
from the number of pounds of cream and divide 
this result into the difference between the fat in the 
cream and the butter. Multiply the quotient by 100 
and the result will be the test of buttermilk. 

Solution: 3,540X30=1,062; butter fat in cream. 
1,290X82=1,057.8 butter fat in butter. 1,062— 
1,057.8=4.2 ; 4.2-^(3.540—1,290) Xl00=.18%. 

Explanation: First find the number of pounds of 
butter fat in the cream and in the butter made from 
it. These are 1,062 and 1,057.8 lbs. respectively. 
Now subtract the total butter made, from the total 
cream pounds, and the difference, which is 2,250 lbs., 
is the buttermilk. Now divide the fat loss — 4.2 lbs. 
by 2,250 (the buttermilk) and the result is the test 
of the buttermilk, .18%. Ans. 

75. To find the number of pounds of butter, with 
a given per cent of fat, which can be made from a 
given number of pounds of butter fat in cream, al- 
lowing a loss of a certain per cent of fat in the but- 
termilk. 

Problem: How many pounds of butter, having 
82.5% fat, can be made from 4,560 lbs. of 32% cream, 
the loss in buttermilk being .75% of the total fat in 
cream ? 

Rule: Multiply cream pounds by the test of 
cream ; divide the result by 100. This gives total 
cream fat. Multiply this by the per cent of loss; 



290 MODEEN BUTTER MAKIISG. 

divide result by 100. This gives loss of fat. Divide 
the difference between loss and total fat in cream 
by the per cent of fat in butter; multiply quotient 
by 100. Result is number of pounds of butter which 
can be made. 

Salution: (4,560X32)-f-100=l,459.2; (1,459.2X 
.75)-^100==10.94; 1,459.2— 10.94=-1,448.26; (1,448.26 
-f-82.5)Xl00=l,755.4 lbs. Ans. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find the number of pounds of butter which can be 
made, allowing a loss of .4 per cent of total fat in 
cream. 

Test of Fat in 





Cream lbs. 


cream. 


butter. 


Butter lbs 


. 


1. 


2,240 lbs. 


30%. 


80% 


Ans. 836.65 


lbs. 


2. 


3,250 lbs. 


25% 


83% 


Ans. 976.7 


lbs. 


3. 


3,250 lbs. 


25% 


80% 


Ans. 1011. 


lbs. 


4. 


5,600 lbs. 


30% 


82% 


Ans. 2040.5 


lbs. 


5. 


5,600 lbs. 


30%. 


81% 


Ans. 2065.7 


lbs. 



76. To find the approximate per cent of fat and 
moisture in butter when the fat in cream and butter 
are known; 31/2% being allowed for salt and casein. 

Problem: Cream contains 800 lbs. of butter fat 
and made 970 lbs. of butter. What is the approxi- 
mate per cent of fat and of moisture in the butter? 

Rule I. Divide the fat pounds by the butter 
pounds; multiply the quotient by 100. The result 
is the per cent of fat in the butter. 

Rule II. To the per cent of fat in the butter add 
3%%; subtract this sum from 100; the remainder 



CREAMEEY PROBLEMS. 291 

is the approximate per cent of moisture in the butter. 

Solution: (800^970) X 100=82.47% fat in butter. 
82.47+3.5=85.97; 100—85.97=14.03% moisture. 

Explanation: When 800 lbs. of fat are made into 
970 lbs. of butter we have ^^Vg^o of 100 lbs. fat in 
every 100 lbs. of butter. The moisture must equal 
the difference between fat in butter plus 3^^ and 
100. 

Problems for Practice. 

Find the per cent of fat and moisture in butter in 
the following : 





Fat in cream. Butter. 


Fat in butter. 


Moisture, 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


850 lbs. 

1,500 lbs. 

2,180 lbs. 

3,670 lbs. 

10,500 lbs. 


1,000 lbs. 
1,850 lbs. 
2,560 lbs. 
4,500 lbs. 
12,500 lbs. 


Ans. 85. % 
Ans. 81.08% 
^Tis. 85.15% 
Ans. 81.55% 
Ans. 84. % 


11.5 % 
15.42% 
11.35% 
14.95% 
12.5 % 



77. Promiscuous problems. 

1. A creamery receives 20,000 lbs. of 4% milk 
daily; losses in separating are 1%% of the total fat; 
losses in the buttermilk are %% of the total fat. 
How many pounds of butter with 80, 81, 82 or 83% 
fat can be made from the milk? 80%=985 lbs., 81% 
=972.7 lbs., 82%=960.9 lbs., 83%=949 lbs. Ans. 

2. (a) The total milk received is 15,000 lbs. test- 
ing 4% ; from this milk was made 720 lbs. of butter 
with 80% fat. Find the loss of butter fat in pounds 
and in per cent. 

(b) What is the test of the skim milk and butter- 
milk when skim milk is 80% of the whole milk, and 
the buttermilk is 75% of the cream? % of total fat 



292 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 

lost was lost in skim milk and % was lost in butter- 
milk. Ans. to (a) : Butter fat lost 24 lbs. ; butter fat 
lost 4%. Ans. to (b) : Skim milk test .13% ; butter- 
milk test .35%. 

3. (a) A hand separator creamery received in 
one day 25,000 lbs. of cream from five receiving 
stations, each shipping 5,000 lbs. of 30% cream, ac- 
cordiog to their test. When cream was tested at 
the creamery it was found that three stations were 
2% short of total butter fat in their cream and two 
stations were 3% short, (a) What is average test 
of cream at creamery? (b) How many pounds of 
butter fat is lost? Ans. (a) 29.28; (b) 180 lbs. 

(b) Suppose the butter made from fat in above 
cream contained 83% fat, (a) how many more pounds 
of butter could be made from it if it contained 81% 
fat; (b) what would be the gain in pounds of butter 
in one year of 300 days, (c) and the value at 30c per 
pound? Ans. to (b) : a— 208 lbs., b— 62,400 lbs., 
c-^18,720. 



CHAPTER V. 

Discussing Comparative Reading of Cream Test 
Bottles. 

Note. — ^Por convenience in illustrating the per 
cent on the graduation is numbered from top down, 
instead of the usual way, from the bottom up. 

78. Basis af camparison. Assuming that the read- 
ing of the actual fat column of any cream test bottle 
is .2 per cent lower than the actual per cent of fat 
in cream, due to .2 per cent of fat remaining in the 
bulb of the bottle ; we will take the method of read- 
ing the milk test bottle as a standard for comparison. 
The average creameryman reads the tests at about 
130° F. The meniscus is about .2 per cent on the 
reading of the test, which is equal to the .2 per cent 
of fat left in the bulb of the test bottle. 

79. Camparing the Reading of 30 per cent, 9 in. 
cream bottle with a milk test bottle. Fig. I. The 
average depth of the meniscus of the 30 per cent 9 
in. cream test bottle. Fig. II, is between .4 — .5 per 
cent. Reading this bottle to the extreme top of the 
fat column, the reading will be from .2 to .3 per 
cent too high. The curvature of the bottom of the 
fat column is greater than the curvature of the fat 
column in the milk test bottle. Fig. I. 

By reading the fat column in the cream test 
bottle. Fig. II., from the extreme bottom to the 
extreme top, the reading will be about A per cent 
too high. According to the variation in the even- 
ness of the bottom curve, c, the reading should be 



294 



MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 



done from the extreme bottom line, d, to almost the 
extreme bottom of meniscus, b. Eead from d to f. 
In reading from d to f, the upper part of the menis- 
cus is cut off to allow the fat making up the sides 



^^^SIj2^ 



CSr 




-^ 



Fig. I 



e- 



— ^4 g=^ 



a 



Fian. 



■ffl& 



Note.— Figs. II, III, IV, V and VI are part of neck of cream bottle enlarged 
two times. 

of the meniscus to fill up the hollowness below line f. 
The .2 per cent of fat left in the bottle will displace 
the curvature at the bottom of the fat column — d, c. 
The meniscus occupies .4 per cent on the reading. 



READING TEST BOTTLES. 



295 



This bottle, due to the small size of the meniscus, 
is the best bottle for the inexperienced creameryman. 
Even if the dividers should slip a little, the error 
arising from this would not be great, because the 
graduation is in .2 per cent, and 1 per cent on the 
graduation takes up quite a space on the bottle. 
By weighing out 9 grams into bottle shown in Fig. 
Ill, an error made is increased by two, and when an 
error is made in reading the test of the sample the 
error made in weighing is multiplied by 4. 

80. Comparing a. 9 gram Fig. IV., 50 per cent 
cream test bottle with an 18 gram, 30 per cent cream 
test bottle, Fig. II. The 30 per cent, 9 inch cream 
bottle. Fig. II, is graduated into .2 per cent, while 
the 50 per cent, 6 inch bottle. Fig. Ill, is graduated 
into .5 per cent. The meniscus of the bottle, Fig. 
Ill, is about 1.8 per cent. Reading this bottle from 




Fralll 



the extreme bottom to the extreme top, the reading 
is about 2 per cent too high, as compared with Fig. 
II, the reading of which is about .3 per cent too 
high. The difference here is due only to the differ- 



296 MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 

ence in the graduation of the bottle, the size of 
neck and the grams used. It will be noticed that 
the space between the markings on the bottle, Fig. 
Ill, are about three times as close as the markings 
on bottle, Fig. II. This closeness of graduations in- 
creases errors in reading, by three. The closer the 
markings of spaces occupying 1 per cent on the 
reading, the greater are the chances of errors aris- 
ing through not being able to get a perfectly cor- 
rect reading. From this analysis it seems that the 
bottle shown in Fig. III. is the most difficult to read 
correctly. The safest way to read this bottle is to 
read from the extreme bottom, a, to the extreme 
top, c, of the fat column, and subtract on the aver- 
age about 2 per cent from the reading. 1. per cent 
occupies ^/i8 inch on the 50 per cent, 6 inch, 9 gram 
bottle. Fig. Ill, and 1. per cent occupies 4 inch on 
the 30 per cent, 9 inch, 18 gram bottle. 

81. Comparing a 55 per cent, 9 inch, Fig. IV., 18 
gram cream test bottle with a 50 per cent, 6 inch, 
Fig. Ill, and a 30 per cent, 9 inch, Fig. II, bottle. 

Fig. IV, 55 per cent, 9 inch, 18 gram cream test 
bottle is graduated into I/2 per cent divisions; each 
division measuring in width ^/gg of an inch. Each 
V23 inch on the neck of the bottle means .5 per 
cent fat. 1 per cent of fat occupies about V12 i^ich 
space. In bottle shown in Fig. II. 1 per cent occu- 
pies i of an inch space. The per cent spaces, on a 
30 per cent, 9 inch, cream bottle. Fig. II, are twice 
as wide as those on bottle shown in Fig. IV, and at 
the same time represent the same per cent of fat. 
Any error made in using bottle shown in Fig. IV is 



EEADINa TEST BOTTLES. 



297 



twice as great as the same error made when using 
bottle shown in Fig. II. An error made in using 
bottle shown in Fig. Ill is 11/2 times as great as the 





■/o$ 



Fi&El 



same error made in using bottle shown in Fig. IV. 
These errors used for illustration may be due to 
either over or under reading, caused by an over- 
sight, slipping of the dividers, or any foreign sub- 
stance which may have found its way unnoticed in- 
to the fat column. 

The meniscus in Fig. IV. occupies about .8 per cent 
on the reading and in extreme cases 1 per cent. In- 
cluding the curvature at the bottom, the reading 
between the extreme ends of the fat column, a-b, is 
.8 per cent to 1 per cent too high. For practical 
purposes, read from a to b and subtract nearly 1 per 



298 



MODEEN BUTTEE MAKING. 



cent. This will come nearer to the right reading than 
reading from a to c or from e to d (and allowing for 
the meniscus) due to difficulty in locating these 
places on the graduation. The curvature of the bot- 
tom of the column in cream tests is rounded enough 
to allow for the .2 per cent left in the test bottle. 
Therefore all subtracting should be done from the 
top — the space occupied by the meniscus. 

82. Comparing a 50 per cent, 6 inch, 18 gram cream 
test bottle with a 30 per cent (Fig. II.), a 50 per cent 
(Fig. rri), and a 55 per cent (Fig. IV) bottle. 

Fig. V shows a 50 per cent cream bottle gradu- 
ated into 1 per cent. There are 16.3 per cent 
per inch in the graduation. The graduated part 




FiqV 



of neck is about S^ inch long. The diameter 
of the inside of neck is % inch. This is 
too wide for correct reading, because the 
bottom of the fat column is not always even. 
Sometimes the bottom of the fat column curves 
upward, or is slightly hollow (e), or irregu- 



READING TEST BOTTLES 299 

lar. Due to these unavoidable irregularities this 
bottle should be used in the following manner if it 
must be used: Read from the extreme bottom (a) 
of the fat column to the bottom of the meniscus (b), 
or from (a) to half way between (b) and (d). Do 
not add or subtract anything in practical work. 
When the bottom of the fat column is smooth and 
well defined, and the meniscus is clear and well de- 
fined, half of the meniscus may be included in the 
reading (b-d). That is, read from (a) to (d). When 
the bottom of the fat column is irregular and the 
meniscus not well defined, read from (a) nearly to 
(d), between (b) and (d). Since the graduations 
are divided into whole per cents and the neck is so 
wide, the bottle is not at all desirable for accurate 
work. 

For convenience in illustrating, the Fig. V. shows 
graduations in .5 per cent instead of 1 per cent, the 
way the bottle is actually graduated. Since the 
cream bottle in Fig. Y. is only graduated into 1 per 
cent, and 1 per cent on this bottle occupies only 
about iV of an inch, it is plain that a slight error 
in reading this bottle would make a great difference 
in the results. 

83. Comparing a 30 per cent, 6 inch, 18 gram, 
cream test bottle with bottles shown in Figs. II., 
III., IV., V. The 30 per cent, 6 inch, 18 gram bot- 
tle. Fig. VI., is graduated in % per cent and 12 
per cent occupies a space of 1 inch. Therefore, .5 
per cent occupies V24 inch, which is about the same 
as bottle in Fig. IV. This is a very good bottle. 



300 



MODEEN BUTTER MAKING. 



unless cream tests more than 30 per cent when an 
18 gram sample must be used. 

When the scales are sensitive and the sajnple well 
mixed and correctly weighed, it may be advisable to 
weigh less than 18 grams of cream for testing, but for 
the average creameryman, it is not advisable to 
weigh out less than 18 grams of cream. 




■^ 



FigH 



-^^'% 



84. Errors arise from weighing out 9 grams (as 
the result must be multiplied by two) and errors 
are further incurred by weighing cream on a scale 
not sensitive enough, where a drop or two too much 
would raise the test considerably. If 18 grams are 
used any small error is not multiplied. 

The cream test bottle Pig. VI. should be read either 
from a to d or from e to c, or half way between d and 
c. The part between b and c is the meniscus and 
occupies about .7 per cent space on the graduations. 



READING TEST BOTTLES 



301 



85. Comparative length of the graduated part of 
the neck of cream test bottles. 

TABLE XIII. 

Comparative Length of the Graduated Part of the Neck 
of Cream Test Bottles. 



Figures 


II 


m 


IV 


V 


VI 


Grams basis on which bottles 
are graduated 


18 


9 


18 


18 


18 


Per cent cream bottle 


30% 


50% 


55% 


50% 


30% 


Size of bottle— 


9 in 


6 in 


Gin 


6 in 


6 in 


Length of graduation 


5% in 


2% in 


413/19 In 


SV" in 


2% in 


Graduated % 


.2% 


.5% 


.5% 


.1% 


.5% 






Number of per cent per inch- 


578% 


18% 


11.4% 


16.3% 


12% 


Inside diameter of neck— 


9/32 in 


23/6* in 


25/«* in 


%in. 


13/32 in 


Space meniscus occupies % — 


.3— .4 


1^-1.8 


.7-1. 


1.-1.6 


.5-.7 



From the above table as well as from the foregoing 
discussion it will be seen that the larger the space 
occupied by 1 per cent on the test bottle, the less 
chance there is for errors. When 1 per cent on the 
reading of the test bottle takes up only V^s of an 
inch, and 5 per cent takes up only Y^g of an inch, 
one can readily understand that the chances are 
greater than with a bottle on which 1 per cent takes 
up about ^/e of an inch on the reading of the test 
bottle, or 5 per cent takes up about ^/q of an inch, or 
nearly one inch. 

86. Reading of cream tests. 

We must not forget that in practical work there 
must be a method for reading tests, which can be 
quickly as well as accurately performed. In Bulle- 
tin No. 58, U. S. Department of Agriculture, we find 



302 MODERN BUTTER MAKINO. 

a short rule to be used to assist in reading cream 
tests accurately. It is as follows: ''Read the test 
from the extreme top to bottom of fat column; de- 
duct from this reading four-fifths of the depth of 
the meniscus and add .2 per cent to the results." 
This rule is short, but the computations necessary- 
may prove too much for the ordinary creamery opera- 
tor. Since we know that the fat column in all cream 
test bottles is curved downward at the bottom, 
enough to cause a hollow on each side of about .1 
per cent, we can safely say that the .2 per cent of fat 
supposed to remain in the bulb of the bottle will be 
sufficient to fill this space. The fat column in bottle 
Pig. II., 30 per cent, 9 inch cream bottle, is practi- 
cally straight at the bottom and therefore this would 
not apply to this particular bottle. Knowing about 
how much the meniscus of each cream test bottle 
occupies, and how much more easily the reading of 
the test from the extreme bottom to the extreme top 
of the fat column can be done, why not read cream 
tests in the following manner: 

Rule. Read any cream test from the extreme bot- 
tom to the extreme top of the meniscus, and sub- 
tract from this reading nearly the whole per cent of 
the meniscus. 

87. Illustrating how to read cream tests. 

The above readings correspond very closely with 
reading taken from a to d in Fig. VI, a to d in Fig. 
V, a to f in Fig. Ill, a to c in Fig. IV, and d to f 
in Fig. II. Inaccurate sampling and weighing of 
cream samples, as well as incorrect whirling of 
bottles and reading tests at improper temperatures. 



READING TEST BOTTLES 



303 



are the cause of as much inaccuracy in testing as 
may arise from the use of improper cream test bot- 
tles. It is, however, very important in testing 
cream, to have bottles, the graduations of which are 
not placed closer than 10 to 12, per cent spaces, per 
inch of graduation. Test bottles that are graduated 
to carry 6 to 8, per cent spaces, per inch are much 
to be preferred. 

Illustrating How to Read Cream Tests. 



Cream 
bottle 


Size 


Full 
Reading 


Average 

Per cent of 

meniscus 


Corrected 
Reading 


30% 


9 in. 


30% 


.3% 


29.7 


30% 


6 in. 


30% 


.5% 


29.5 


9 gram 

50% 


6 in. 


30% 


1.5% 


28.5 


55% 


9 in. 


30% 


.7% 


29.2 


50% 


6 in. 


30% 


1.2% 


28.7 



88. The most accurate cream test bottles now 
generally used are the 30 per cent, 18 gram, 6 inch, 
% inch neck diameter; the 30 per cent, 18 gram, 9 
inch, and the 50-55 per cent, 9 inch, 18 gram cream 
test bottle. 

The reason why the reading of tests made from 
the same lot of cream with differently graduated 
cream test bottles is not always the same is mainly 
due to inaccurate graduation of the bottle, irregu- 
larity in the surface of the top and bottom of the 
fat column and the inability to determine the proper 
points on the graduation from which to read the 
tests. Were the fat column clear, with straight top 
and bottom line, the reading could be accurately 
done with any cream test bottle. 



INDEX TO BOOK 11. 
DAIRY ARITHMETIC 



CHAPTER I. 

PERCENTAGE AND DECIMALS. 
Par. No. Page 

1. Notation and numeration 216 

2. Expressing the value of a decimal 217 

3. Eeading of decimals 218 

4. Principles of decimals 219 

5. Multiplication of decimals 221 

6. Special rules for multiplication of decimals 221 

7. Addition of decimals 222 

8. Subtraction of decimals - - . 223 

9. Division of decimals 224 

10. Examples for illustration 224 

11. Reducing fractions to decimals 227 

12. Reducing decimals to common fractions 227 

13. Percentage 228 

14. Various ways of expressing per cent 229 

CHAPTER 11. 

THE OVERRUN. 

15. The overrun in butter making 232 

16. Overrun influenced by market demands 232 

17. Definitions and explanations 233 

(a) Overrun 233 

(b) Per cent of overrun 233 

(c) Percentage of overrun - _. 233 

18. Cause of overrun 233 

19. Variation in overrun in whole milk creameries 234 

20. Variations in overrun in hand separator cream cream- 

eries 234 



INDEX 305 

Par. No. Page 

21. True and false overrun. True overrun _^-.__ 234 

22. Market or false overrun 235 

23. Overrun based upon market returns 236 

24. Overrun based upon composition of butter 236 

25. How to find the per cent of butter fat in butter 237 

26. Hand separator cream overrun 237 

27. Comparison of true overrun 238 

28. Market overrun 238 

29. Overrun based upon composition of butter 238 

30. Comparison of various overruns 239 

31. Overrun for a whole milk creamery 240 

32. Overrun for a hand separator cream creamery 241 

33. Overrun on print butter 242 

34. How underreading milk tests affects the results in 

butter making 243 

35. Extension of Table No. VI 244 

36. How overreading affects the overrun 244 

37. Effect of under reading cream tests 245 

38. Table No. X 246 

39. Butter fat in milk plus one-sixth equals the amount 

of butter made 246 

40. Effect of overreading cream tests 247 

41. Continuation of Table XI 248 

42. Main factors affecting overrun 249 

CHAPTER III. 

STANDARDIZATION OF MILK AND CREAM AND 
BUTTER FAT VALUES. 

43. Correct standardization 251 

44. Extent of losses - 252 

45. Losses on cream 253 

46. Problems in standardization 255 

47. When whole milk is used 260 

48. Standardizing whole milk 261 

49. How to use viscogen as a thickening agent 263 

50. A few suggestions on the use of viscogen in commer- 

cial cream - 264 

51. Butter fat values 264 

52. Problems with explanations 265 

53. Comparative values 268 

54. The value of butter fat in cream 268 



306 MODERN BUTTER MAKING. 



CHAPTER IV. 

PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE RECEIVING AND 

SEPARATING OF MILK. 

Par No. Page 

55. Find the amoimt of butter fat in milk 269 

56. Find butter fat losses in skim milk 270 

57. Find per cent of cream from milk 271 

58. Find per cent of cream from milk when other factors 

are known 271 

59. Find amount of cream from milk 272 

60. Find amount of cream when other factors are known. 273 

61. Find amount of cream, butter fat losses 1^ per cent- 274 

62. Find skim milk lbs. from any quantity of milk 275 

63. Find approximate test of cream 276 

64. Find approximate average test of skim milk 277 

65. Table of relative loss in skim milk 278 

66. Promiscuous problems 279 

±>. Problems Pertaining to Cream Ripening. 

67. Find lbs. of starter to add to cream 281 

68. Knowing per cent of starter added, find lbs 282 

69. Find per cent of starter added to cream 283 

70. Find acidity of cream after adding starter 284 

71. Find acidity of cream before diluting 285 

72. Promiscuous problems 286 

73. Problems bearing on the manufacture of butter 287 

74. Find per cent of fat in buttermilk 288 

75. Pounds of butter that can be made 289 

76. Find per cent of fat and moisture in butter 290 

77. Promiscuous problems . 291 

CHAPTER V. 

DISCUSSING COMPARATIVE READING OF CREAM 
TEST BOTTLES 

78. Basis of comparison 293 

79. Comparing the reading of 30% bottle 293 

80. Comparing a 9 gram cream bottle . 295 

81. Comparing a 55%-18 gram bottle 296 

82. Comparing a 50% 6-inch cream bottle 298 

83. Comparing a 30% cream bottle 299 

84. Errors, how caused 300 

85. Comparative graduation of bottles . 301 

86. Reading of cream tests 301 

87. How to read cream tests 302 

88. Most accurate cream bottles 303 



INFORMATION 

TO 

CREAMERYMEN AND 
DAIRYMEN. 



WISCONSIN DAIRY SCHOOL AWARD 




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<ur. 



POTTER AMD Cbe^^^hoE^««'™NS 



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T TNDER the direction of Prof. E. H. Farrington, 
in charge of the Wisconsin Dairy School, 
Madison, Wisconsin, and Mr. Math. Michels, then 
in charge of the Wisconsin Butter and Cheese 
Scoring Exhibitions, the above award was granted 
to seventy-eight butter makers and to twenty-six 
cheese makers, in recognition of their skill, as 
shown by their monthly exhibits during the first 
and second years of the Exhibitions. 



CHR. HANSEN'S 
Danish Dairy Preparations 



INCLUDE 



Danish Rennet Extract 
Danish Cheese Color 
Danish Butter Color 
Lactic Ferment Culture 

All well known to Butter and Cheese Makers 
throughout the World and for sale generally by dealers 
in Dairy Supplies. 

For Cheese Making on the Farm, use 

Chr. Hansen's Rennet Tablets and 
Cheese Color Tablets 

Highly concentrated and handy to 
send by mail. For sale by Druggists. 



Dairymen making ICE CREAM will do well to try 
our VANILLA and other FLAVORING EXTRACTS 
as well as our JUNKET COLORS. The Junket 
Process for Ice Cream saves expense and makes a 
most delicious product. 



CHR. HANSEN'S LABORATORY 

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y. 



Postal Dairy Library. 

THIS form of Extension Library was es- 
tablished at the Dairy School at Madison, 
Wis., in response to frequent requests for 
loans of bulletins, books, etc. 

The Library consists of over 1,000 different 
articles, nearly all relating to dairying and 
kindred subjects which were gathered from 
all parts of the United States and Canada. 
Most of them are in the shape of bulletins and 
circulars from the various Experiment Sta- 
tions. Many addresses given before Butter- 
maker's, Cheesemaker's and Dairymen's con- 
ventions are also included in this collection. 
These bulletins, circulars, etc., are loaned 
upon request for a period of three weeks. 
The Library gets its name from the fact that 
it makes use of the Postal Service in trans- 
porting the publications. 

A catalog has been prepared in which all 
of this material has been classified so that a 
patron can readily find such publications as 
he desires. This catalog also gives full direc- 
tions how the service of the Library may be 
obtained, and is mailed free of charge to per- 
sons requesting the same. 

Buttermakers, cheesemakers, dairymen, 
teachers, etc., are earnestly requested to make 
full use of this new form of extension work. 

Postal Dairy Library 

Madison, \A(^is. 



THE "SIMPLEX" 

Combined Churn and Butter Worker 




SIMPLEX" CREAM RTPENER 




The above illustrations show two of our patented pieces of 
apparatus for modern butter making-. Sanitary and substantial 
in construction, convenient and efficient in operation. 

D. H. BURRELL & CO., MFG. 

LITTLE FALLS. N. Y. 

Everything for the Dairy, Creamery or Cheese Factory 



c 




Capper Parafflner for Paraiflninj 
Butter Tabs 



Scovell 
Milk 
Sampling- 
Tube 



Milk 
Thief 
Sampling- 
Tube 



The Wizard Agitator 




A Quality Maker— A Quality Machine 

Users of the Wizard Agitator unanimously testify to 
its wonderful help in producing top grade butter under 
unfavorable conditions. The spiral disc coil has a flat 
"pushing" surface equal in mixing effect to a hundred 
butter spades. Consequently, it mixes a hundred times 
better than you can do it by hand. Uniform ripening 
is assured. It emulsifies — aerates — heats — cools — holds 
temperature. Its use means better butter — more but- 
ter — more dollars. 

Complete information and prices will be given on 
request. 

The C. P. Line is Complete 

We furnish complete equipment and supplies for 
Creameries, Cheese factories. Farm Dairies, Produce 
Dealers, Ice Cream Makers. Ice Making and Refriger- 
H ating Machinery in all capacities and for every purpose. 

■ Catalogs free. 

I The Creamery Package Mfg. Company 

I Chicago, 111., U. S. A. 

I Br 

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Branches: Albany, N. Y. 
Kansas City, Mo. 



Waterloo, la. 



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Omaha, Neb. 



J. G. CHERRY COMPANY 

Manufacturers and Jobbers 

Creamery Machinery 

AND SUPPLIES 

Egg Case Fillers and Poultry Supplies 

Cedar Rapids, la. Peoria, 111. St. Paul, Minn. 



THE JENSEN RIPENER 



Nearly 700 Jensen Ripeners sold within the past two 
years is a strong endorsement for the efficiency of the vat. 
The Automatic Circulating Device which goes with it does 
away with the old leaky, troublesome pump, and adds 
greatly to the cooling efficiency of the ripener. Every 
Creamery using a Jensen Ripener with Automatic Circu- 
lating Device can have a brine system without extra in- 
vestment. Built in all sizes from 100 gallons up to 1,000 
gallons. Built either with wood or steel outer jacket. 

Jensen Mfg. Company, Topeka, Kan. 



AN 3 1911 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



BTmiinni— Hi ■■iimiimi .._ — 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



i DQDOfl'^t.lfilS 




